Plant dependence on fungal carbon (mycoheterotrophy) evolved repeatedly. In orchids, it is connected with a mycorrhizal shift from rhizoctonia to ectomycorrhizal fungi and a high natural (13)C and (15)N abundance. Some green relatives of mycoheterotrophic species show identical trends, but most of these remain unstudied, blurring our understanding of evolution to mycoheterotrophy. We analysed mycorrhizal associations and (13)C and (15)N biomass content in two green species, Neottia ovata and N. cordata (tribe Neottieae), from a genus comprising green and nongreen (mycoheterotrophic) species. Our study covered 41 European sites, including different meadow and forest habitats and orchid developmental stages. Fungal ITS barcoding and electron microscopy showed that both Neottia species associated mainly with nonectomycorrhizal Sebacinales Clade B, a group of rhizoctonia symbionts of green orchids, regardless of the habitat or growth stage. Few additional rhizoctonias from Ceratobasidiaceae and Tulasnellaceae, and ectomycorrhizal fungi were detected. Isotope abundances did not detect carbon gain from the ectomycorrhizal fungi, suggesting a usual nutrition of rhizoctonia-associated green orchids. Considering associations of related partially or fully mycoheterotrophic species such as Neottia camtschatea or N. nidus-avis with ectomycorrhizal Sebacinales Clade A, we propose that the genus Neottia displays a mycorrhizal preference for Sebacinales and that the association with nonectomycorrhizal Sebacinales Clade B is likely ancestral. Such a change in preference for mycorrhizal associates differing in ecology within the same fungal taxon is rare among orchids. Moreover, the existence of rhizoctonia-associated Neottia spp. challenges the shift to ectomycorrhizal fungi as an ancestral pre-adaptation to mycoheterotrophy in the whole Neottieae.

Aims Biodiversity is traditionally studied mostly at the species level, but biogeographical and macroecological studies at higher taxonomic levels can provide valuable insights into the evolutionary processes at large spatial scales. Our aim was to assess the representation of vascular plant families within different vegetation formations across Europe. Location Europe. Methods We used a data set of 816,005 vegetation plots from the European Vegetation Archive (EVA). For each plot, we calculated the relative species richness of each plant family as the number of species belonging to that family divided by the total number of species. We mapped the relative species richness, averaged across all plots in 50 km × 50 km grid cells, for each family and broad habitat groups: forests, grasslands, scrub and wetlands. We also calculated the absolute species richness and the Shannon diversity index for each family. Results We produced 522 maps of mean relative species richness for a total of 152 vascular plant families occurring in forests, grasslands, scrub and wetlands. We found distinct spatial patterns for many combinations of families and habitat groups. The resulting series of 522 maps is freely available, both as images and GIS layers. Conclusions The distinct spatial patterns revealed in the maps suggest that the relative species richness of plant families at the community level reflects the evolutionary history of individual families. We believe that the maps and associated data can inspire further biogeographical and macroecological studies and strengthen the ongoing integration of phylogenetic, functional and taxonomic diversity concepts.

Motivation Indicator values are numerical values used to characterize the ecological niches of species and to estimate their occurrence along gradients. Indicator values on climatic and edaphic niches of plant species have received considerable attention in ecological research, whereas data on the optimal positioning of species along disturbance gradients are less developed. Here, we present a new data set of disturbance indicator values identifying optima along gradients of natural and anthropogenic disturbance for 6382 vascular plant species based on the analysis of 736,366 European vegetation plots and using expert‐based characterization of disturbance regimes in 236 habitat types. The indicator values presented here are crucial for integrating disturbance niche optima into large‐scale vegetation analyses and macroecological studies. Main types of variables contained We set up five main continuous indicator values for European vascular plants: disturbance severity, disturbance frequency, mowing frequency, grazing pressure and soil disturbance. The first two indicators are provided separately for the whole community and for the herb layer. We calculated the values as the average of expert‐based estimates of disturbance values in all habitat types where a species occurs, weighted by the number of plots in which the species occurs within a given habitat type. Spatial location and grain Europe. Vegetation plots ranging in size from 1 to 1000 m2. Time period and grain Vegetation plots mostly sampled between 1956 and 2013 (= 5th and 95th quantiles of the sampling year, respectively). Major taxa and level of measurement Species‐level indicator values for vascular plants. Software format csv file.

Annual shoots of 46 terrestrial orchid species commonly found in wide ranges of temperate climates in Russia and Japan change their patterns of growth recurrence from the dormancy state, through formation and growth, to the next dormancy state during the course of yearly response to seasonal cycles of environmental conditions. Each of the species has its own strategy in seasonal development of aerial shoots, rhizomes, tubers and roots, and shows seasonal differentiation of shoot morphogenesis at the early stage of new shoot apex formation in accordance with its growth habit, habitat and range size of geographical distribution. Perennial orchids with sympodial growth patterns and primitive life forms are characterized by long duration of shoot and inflorescence development inside the bud. Among the species studied, the orchids that have annually regenerating root‐stem tubers have the shortest duration of root and shoot morphogenesis. The species that have predominant patterns of monopodial growth show variability in duration of lateral shoot growth due to the energy budget of the mother plant. The species which have latitudinally long ranges of distribution from northern colder regions to southern warmer regions tend to take longer for shoot development inside the bud, and aerial shoots have a shorter life‐span in the northern regions than those in the south.

Fritillaria meleagris L. is a rare species mainly associated with floodplain forests and meadows. Conservation of populations of this species needs to consider a key aspect of its life history – prolonged dormancy (PD). In F. meleagris, this was observed during 8-years monitoring of individual plants on the protected ancient Lugg Meadow in the UK. One-year PD was most frequently observed in the population, followed by 2-year PD. Seven-year dormancy was the longest recorded. Twenty two percent of plants didn’t display PD during the observation period. Large variability in the patterns of individual plants submerging and re-emerging from dormancy in different years, suggested individual genetic heterogeneity as the main factor driving PD of the species. Three morphological states were identified in dormant plants of F. meleagris including a false dormancy in individuals which carried on growing below ground. Patterns of PD in rare species need to be studied on individually monitored plants and applied to models of population dynamics for species conservation purposes

Lesser Twayblade. Orchidaceae, subfamily Epidendroideae, tribe

Aim European grassland communities are highly diverse, but patterns and drivers of their continental‐scale diversity remain elusive. This study analyses taxonomic and functional richness in European grasslands along continental‐scale temperature and precipitation gradients. Location Europe. Methods We quantified functional and taxonomic richness of 55,748 vegetation plots. Six plant traits, related to resource acquisition and conservation, were analysed to describe plant community functional composition. Using a null‐model approach we derived functional richness effect sizes that indicate higher or lower diversity than expected given the taxonomic richness. We assessed the variation in absolute functional and taxonomic richness and in functional richness effect sizes along gradients of minimum temperature, temperature range, annual precipitation, and precipitation seasonality using a multiple general additive modelling approach. Results Functional and taxonomic richness was high at intermediate minimum temperatures and wide temperature ranges. Functional and taxonomic richness was low in correspondence with low minimum temperatures or narrow temperature ranges. Functional richness increased and taxonomic richness decreased at higher minimum temperatures and wide annual temperature ranges. Both functional and taxonomic richness decreased with increasing precipitation seasonality and showed a small increase at intermediate annual precipitation. Overall, effect sizes of functional richness were small. However, effect sizes indicated trait divergence at extremely low minimum temperatures and at low annual precipitation with extreme precipitation seasonality. Conclusions Functional and taxonomic richness of European grassland communities vary considerably over temperature and precipitation gradients. Overall, they follow similar patterns over the climate gradients, except at high minimum temperatures and wide temperature ranges, where functional richness increases and taxonomic richness decreases. This contrasting pattern may trigger new ideas for studies that target specific hypotheses focused on community assembly processes. And though effect sizes were small, they indicate that it may be important to consider climate seasonality in plant diversity studies.

ABSTRACT. Forty plants of Parnassia palustris var. multiseta collected in nine localities in Russia were studied in chromosome botany. They showed differentiation of the somatic chromosome numbers of 2n=18, 27 and 36, that could be diploid, triploid and tetraploid, respectively, of which the chromosome number of 2n=27 was reported here for the first time. The plants of 2n=18 and 36 chromosomes had commonly high pollen stainability and showed significantly different pollen grains in size from each other. The Parnassia palustris complex has been reported various different chromosome numbers from 2n=18 to 54 included in aneuploidy and autoploidy by many researchers (e.g., Erlandsson 1942;Kliphuis et al. 1965;Krogulevich 1978;Engelskjon 1979;Löve and Löve 1982;Gornall 1985;Funamoto 1986;Hultgård 1987; Gornarl and Wentworth 1993;Funamoto et al. 1994Funamoto et al. , 2002Wentworth and Gornall 1996;Lövkvisk and Hultgård 1999). KEYWORDS:In 2003 and 2004, we made field trips in Primorye and Altai Territories, Russia. According to Czerepanov (1995), these Territories record three species of Parnassia and we collected and studied P. palustris L. var. multiseta Ledeb. in somatic metaphase chromosomes and pollen grains. MATERIALS AND METHODSTotal 40 living samples of Parnassia palustris L. var. multiseta Ledeb. were collected in ten sites in nine localities in Primorye and Altai Territories, Russia ( Fig. 1; Table 1). These plants were cultivated in pots in shade place in the experimental garden of Showa Pharmaceutical University. Mitotic metaphase chromosomes were prepared in meristematic cells in fresh root-tips. Fresh root-tips were cut off in 5-10 mm long and pretreated in 2mM 8-hydroxyquinoline for 4h at ca 20°C before they were fixed in 45% acetic acid for 10 min at ca 2°C. They were macerated in a mixture of 1N hydrochloric-acid and 45% acetic-acid (1:1) for 20-23 sec at ca 60°C, were stained in 2% aceto-orcein for ca 30 min at room temperature in a moist chamber with 45% acetic-acid and then, were squashed in 2% aceto-orcein by the conventional method.Classification of Chromosome complements by the centromeric positions at mitotic metaphase followed Levan et al. (1964).Pollen grains were stained with 2% aceto-orcein to count at least first 3,000 grains for pollen stainability. After the photography, sizes of pollen grains were measured in length and width with a dial caliper, and analyzed with significant t-test.