Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the deposition of amyloid-β peptide in the brain. N-terminal truncation resulting in the formation of AβN3pE and phosphorylation at serine 8 have been reported to modify aggregation properties of amyloid-β. Biochemically, soluble, dispersible, membrane-associated, and insoluble, plaque-associated amyloid-β aggregates have been distinguished. Soluble and dispersible amyloid-β aggregates are both in mixture with the extracellular or intracellular fluid but dispersible aggregates can be cleared from proteins in solution by ultracentrifugation. To clarify the role of phosphorylated amyloid-β and AβN3pE in soluble, dispersible, membrane-associated, and plaque-associated amyloid-β aggregates in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease we studied brains from 21 cases with symptomatic Alzheimer's disease, 33 pathologically preclinical Alzheimer's disease cases, and 20 control cases. Western blot analysis showed that soluble, dispersible, membrane-associated and plaque-associated amyloid-β aggregates in the earliest preclinical stage of Alzheimer's disease did not exhibit detectable amounts of AβN3pE and phosphorylated amyloid-β. This stage was referred to as biochemical stage 1 of amyloid-β aggregation and accumulation. In biochemical amyloid-β stage 2, AβN3pE was additionally found whereas phosphorylated amyloid-β was restricted to biochemical amyloid-β stage 3, the last stage of amyloid-β aggregation. Phosphorylated amyloid-β was seen in the dispersible, membrane-associated, and plaque-associated fraction. All cases with symptomatic Alzheimer's disease in our sample fulfilled biochemical amyloid-β stage 3 criteria, i.e. detection of phosphorylated amyloid-β. Most, but not all, cases with pathologically preclinical Alzheimer's disease had biochemical amyloid-β stages 1 or 2. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the hierarchical occurrence of amyloid-β, AβN3pE, and phosphorylated amyloid-β in amyloid plaques. Phosphorylated amyloid-β containing plaques were, thereby, seen in all symptomatic cases with Alzheimer's disease but only in a few non-demented control subjects. The biochemical amyloid-β stages correlated with the expansion of amyloid-β plaque deposition and with that of neurofibrillary tangle pathology. Taken together, we demonstrate that AβN3pE and phosphorylated amyloid-β are not only detectable in plaques, but also in soluble and dispersible amyloid-β aggregates outside of plaques. They occur in a hierarchical sequence that allows the distinction of three stages. In light of our findings, it is tempting to speculate that this hierarchical, biochemical sequence of amyloid-β aggregation and accumulation is related to disease progression and may be relevant for an increasing toxicity of amyloid-β aggregates.

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BackgroundThe deposition of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) in the brain is one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It is not yet clear whether Aβ always leads to similar changes or whether it induces different features of neurodegeneration in relation to its intra- and/or extracellular localization or to its intracellular trafficking routes. To address this question, we have analyzed two transgenic mouse models: APP48 and APP23 mice. The APP48 mouse expresses Aβ1-42 with a signal sequence in neurons. These animals produce intracellular Aβ independent of amyloid precursor protein (APP) but do not develop extracellular Aβ plaques. The APP23 mouse overexpresses human APP with the Swedish mutation (KM670/671NL) in neurons and produces APP-derived extracellular Aβ plaques and intracellular Aβ aggregates.ResultsTracing of commissural neurons in layer III of the frontocentral cortex with the DiI tracer revealed no morphological signs of dendritic degeneration in APP48 mice compared to littermate controls. In contrast, the dendritic tree of highly ramified commissural frontocentral neurons was altered in 15-month-old APP23 mice. The density of asymmetric synapses in the frontocentral cortex was reduced in 3- and 15-month-old APP23 but not in 3- and 18-month-old APP48 mice. Frontocentral neurons of 18-month-old APP48 mice showed an increased proportion of altered mitochondria in the soma compared to wild type and APP23 mice. Aβ was often seen in the membrane of neuronal mitochondria in APP48 mice at the ultrastructural level.ConclusionsThese results indicate that APP-independent intracellular Aβ accumulation in APP48 mice is not associated with dendritic and neuritic degeneration but with mitochondrial alterations whereas APP-derived extra- and intracellular Aβ pathology in APP23 mice is linked to dendrite degeneration and synapse loss independent of obvious mitochondrial alterations. Thus, Aβ aggregates in APP23 and APP48 mice induce neurodegeneration presumably by different mechanisms and APP-related production of Aβ may, thereby, play a role for the degeneration of neurites and synapses.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/2051-5960-1-77) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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