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Altitude training increases haemoglobin, erythropoietin values among athletes, but may have negative physiological consequences. An alternative, although less explored, that has the potential to positively influence performance while avoiding some of the negative physiological consequences of hypoxia is sand training. Ten endurance-trained athletes (age: 20.8 ± 1.4, body mass: 57.7 ± 8.2 kg, stature: 176 ± 6 cm; 5000 m 14:55.00 ±0:30 min) performed three 21-day training camps at different locations: at a high altitude (HIGH), at the sea-level (CTRL), at the sea-level on the sand (SAND). Differences in erythropoietin (EPO) and haemoglobin (Hb) concentration, body weight, VO2max and maximal aerobic velocity (VMA) before and after each training cycle were compared. Data analysis has indicated that training during HIGH elicited a greater increase in VO2max (2.4 ± 0.2%; p = 0.005 and 1.0 ± 0.2%; p < 0.001) and VMA (2.4 ± 0.2%, p < 0.001 and 1.2 ± 0.2%; p = 0.001) compared with CTRL and SAND. While increases in VO2max and VMA following SAND were greater (1.3 ± 0.1%; p < 0.001 and 1.2 ± 0.1%; p < 0.001) than those observed after CTRL. Moreover, EPO increased to a greater extent following HIGH (25.3 ± 2.7%) compared with SAND (11.7 ± 1.6%, p = 0.008) and CTRL (0.1 ± 0.3%, p < 0.001) with a greater increase (p < 0.01) following SAND compared with CTRL. Furthermore, HIGH and SAND elicited a greater increase (4.9 ± 0.9%; p = 0.001 and 3.3 ± 1.1%; p = 0.035) in Hb compared with CTRL. There was no difference in Hb changes observed between HIGH and SAND (p = 1.0). Finally, athletes lost 2.1 ± 0.4% (p = 0.001) more weight following HIGH vs. CTRL, while there were no differences in weight changes between HIGH vs. SAND (p = 0.742) and SAND vs. CTRL (p = 0.719). High-altitude training and sea-level training on sand resulted in significant improvements in EPO, Hb, VMA, and VO2max that exceeded changes in such parameters following traditional sea-level training. While high-altitude training elicited greater relative increases in EPO, VMA, and VO2max, sand training resulted in comparable increases in Hb and may prevent hypoxia-induced weight loss.

This research provides a model for the operationalization of psychological training for an athlete in athletics jumping events, obtained by means of a case study realized within a 3-year experiment. Optimization of an athlete's level of motivation through the operationalization of the psychological training aims at maximizing the level of performance achieved by the athlete. The research was carried out using specific techniques, based on quantifying motivational levels in order to identify global motivational force (GMF), determining the general motivation instrumentality (GMI) and the motivation instrumentality (MI) by motivational factors, which reflect the independent variables of motivation, these generating objectives in the optimization of psychological training. Quantifying the motivational level of an athlete revealed to us the sensitive differences between the values of the athlete (7.35) and those of his coach (6.85), in his perception of the athlete's motivational structures. Based on the values identified regarding the general motivation instrumentality (GMI) for the athlete O.M. and taking into consideration the evaluation of the athlete by his coach and the ranking of each motivational factor, we were able to create objectives for psychological training. The results recorded throughout the research show an ascending curve in the GMF values of the athlete, from 7.35 to 8.57, values which signify a motivational profile with increased tendencies towards a higher level. Applying this strategy with regards to optimizing the motivational level of the athlete (O.M.) through operationalizing his psychological training leads to an improvement in both GMI and GMF values.

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