Summary3D printers are currently widely available and very popular among the general public. However, the use of these devices may pose health risks to users, attributable to air-quality issues arising from gaseous and particulate emissions in particular. We characterized emissions from a low-end 3D printer based on material extrusion, using the most common polymers: acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA). Measurements were carried out in an emission chamber and a conventional room. Particle emission rates were obtained by direct measurement and modeling, whereas the influence of extrusion temperature was also evaluated. ABS was the material with the highest aerosol emission rate. The nanoparticle emission ranged from 3.7·10 8 to 1.4·10 9 particles per second (# s −1 ) in chamber measurements and from 2.0·10 9 to 4.0·10 9 # s −1 in room measurements, when the recommended extruder temperature was used. Printing with PLA emitted nanoparticles at the rate of 1.0·10 7 # s −1 inside the chamber and negligible emissions in room experiments. Emission rates were observed to depend strongly on extruder temperature. The particles' mean size ranged from 7.8 to 10.5 nanometers (nm). We also detected a significant emission rate of particles of 1 to 3 nm in size during all printing events. The amounts of volatile organic and other gaseous compounds were only traceable and are not expected to pose health risks. Our study suggests that measures preventing human exposure to high nanoparticle concentrations should be adopted when using low-end 3D printers.
Purpose: This paper investigates the technology, business and intellectual property issues surrounding the production of spare parts through Additive Manufacturing (AM) from a digital source. It aims to identify challenges to the growth of the AM spares market and propose suitable solutions.
Methodology:The paper begins with a systematic literature review and theoretical analysis. This is followed by case study research (CSR) through semi-structured interviews, forming the basis of a triangulated, cross-case analysis of empirical data.
Findings:The paper identifies several obstacles to the development of the AM-produced digital spares market. The manufacturing industry will soon be forced to rethink AM as a real manufacturing alternative. Short-term, AM technology has implications for the production of components for legacy systems for which tooling facilities no longer exist. Long-term, AM will be used to produce a wide range of components especially when product and/or service functionality can be increased. To enable companies to navigate current uncertainties in the patent framework (especially the 'repair versus make' doctrine), new IPR strategies could be developed around patenting both complex devices and their individual components, and seeking patent protection for CAD files. Further harmonization of the EU legal framework, the interpretation of claims and the scope of protection offered in the context of spare parts, will also be important.Originality/value: This study pinpoints key issues that need to be addressed within the European AM business environment and the patent system and proposes recommendations for business and legal frameworks to promote the growth of a stable European digital spare parts market.
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