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In pipefishes, males brood their offspring on their body or in a brood pouch. In 2 species of pipeflsh, Siphonostorna typhle and Nerophis ophidion, sexual dimorphism, dichromatism, and sex role reversal differed in degree between the species. N. ophidion females were larger than males, whereas in S. typhle sexes were equally large. Furthermore, N. ophidion females have pronounced sexual colourings and possess dorso-ventral skin folds, in contrast to males, whereas sexes in S. typhle look alike. The hypothesis that the males in the more reversed sex dimorphic species, N. ophidion, should invest relatively more energy in their young than the males of the species with smaller differences in sex roles and sex dimorphism was investigated by measuring energy contents in adults and different zygote stages as well as in vitro respiration of zygotes, also of different stages. Our results showed that in both species males provide nourishment to their broods. Contrary to expectation, however, males of N. ophidion invest less energy per zygote than do the females, while in S. typhle the 2 sexes make about equal investments. The strong dimorphism in N. ophidion therefore is likely to have evolved in response to some constraint other than energy investment imposed by males on the female's reproductive success.

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Experience of moderate or even severe postoperative pain has remained a clinical problem despite major progress in pain assessment and management. The aim of the present study was to assess any association between different pre- as well as postoperative factors, actual pain experiences in the postoperative period, and the overall patient satisfaction with the pain management. A random sample of surgical patients (n =191) responded to pre- and postoperative questionnaires detailing presence of preoperative baseline pain, expected and actually experienced postoperative pain levels and perceived adequacy of the pain relief provided. Patient satisfaction was assessed and factors of importance for satisfaction/dissatisfaction were analysed. It was found that 88% of the patients had previously undergone surgical procedures and that 53% of these patients claimed to have experienced moderate or severe pain at that time. Current pain prior to the present surgical procedure was reported by 61% of the patients. Most patients (91%) expected pain of moderate to severe intensity and 76% reported to have experienced such pain levels. In spite of this 81% of the patients claimed to be satisfied with the pain management while only 8% were dissatisfied. Sex, age, pre-operative expectation and actual experience of pain relief, and the overall pain experience were found to be factors associated with the probability of being satisfied/dissatisfied. Main characteristics of the dissatisfied patient were a younger age and female sex. It is concluded that patients commonly expect moderate to severe pain in the postoperative period and that the actual pain experience is mainly in accordance with the pre-operative expectations. Therefore, the validity of patient satisfaction as an optimal outcome variable in quality assurance processes of postoperative pain management may be questioned.

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