This paper presents an overview of studies into effects and side effects of control mechanisms in education. We focus on effects and side effects of inspection visits and public performance indicators. A first conclusion is that the studies do not provide us with a clear answer to the question of whether inspections have positive causal effects on the quality of schools. Results of studies of publications on public performance indicators are more unambiguous. They lead us to the conclusion that although principals and teachers believe performance indicators are important, parents and pupils take very little notice of these indicators when choosing schools. A third conclusion concerns the occurrence of side effects of school inspections and other control mechanisms in education. Several of the studies discussed clearly refer to the existence of these side effects, such as 'window dressing' and other types of 'gaming'.
A recent development in educational accountability is a risk-based approach, in which intensity and frequency of school inspections vary across schools to make educational accountability more efficient and effective by enabling inspectorates to focus on organizations at risk. Characteristics relevant in predicting which schools are Bat risk on adverse effects^and robustness of results of risk-based analyses over multiple cohorts were assessed by an empirical analysis of Dutch primary schools. Adverse effects were defined as below average final achievement and/or below average value added. School composition, previous underperformance, insufficient judgments on having a systematic evaluation approach, evaluation of support, and monitoring student performance appeared as factors related to subsequent underperformance of schools. Although a rich set of possible risk factors was available, further investigation of a large number of schools is required in order to find nearly all underperforming schools. However, a group of about 40 % of the schools showed very small risk on underperformance, which represents the efficiency gain when risk-based school accountability would be applied. Furthermore, whether schools are (in)accurately classified in the risk analysis as Bat-risk^schools depends heavily on the chosen caesura.
Estimating added value as an indicator of school effectiveness in the context of educational accountability often occurs using test or examination scores of students. This study investigates the possibilities for using scores of educational positions as an alternative indicator. A number of advantages of a value added indicator based on educational positions of students can be formulated, such as: (a) the societal significance of educational position as output measure; (b) the fact that a single indicator can be estimated for an entire school in a differentiated educational system, where not all schools provide education in all tracks; and (c) the expectation that value added based on educational positions leads to other incentives for schools than value added based on test scores. Empirical analysis of Dutch cohort data (VOCL'99) for secondary education showed considerable differences in effectiveness between schools in the positions of students. Furthermore, differential school effects were found for both socio-economic status and prior achievement. The phenomena of differential school effects for socio-economic status and prior achievement are linked to differences between schools in the kind of tracks in which the schools provide schooling.
This article demonstrates the value of theoretical ex-ante evaluation of policy programs. We show how a specific policy might not achieve its objectives and illustrate the elements of the policy, which need improvement. These conclusions are based on a reconstruction and evaluation of the theory behind a policy program that aims to increase productivity of schools in the Netherlands, the policy of ‘‘educational governance.’’ We chose this program for its interesting combination of measures on internal quality assurances as well as accountability and supervision. The evaluation clearly shows a flaw in the theory underlying the policy program, which threatens its potential effectiveness. Furthermore, we show that there is a risk of contrary and incompatible interests among actors, as well as some practical reasons why the program might not work. Adjustment of the program is recommended before implementation.
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