We report here the development of an actuator with an ionic electroactive polymer (IEAP) laminate that is exclusively designed to exhibit a combination of high electrically induced strain and high bending modulus. The newly constructed laminate is one of the few IEAPs meeting the requirements for use in miniature soft robotics. The laminate has activated carbon-based electrodes and ionic liquid is used as an electrolyte. Layers of compliant gold foil are used as current collectors. The superior performance of the IEAP laminate is demonstrated by constructing a centimeter-scale robot propelled by a single IEAP actuator. The cyclic locomotion of the robot is inspired by the movements of an inchworm, while the IEAP laminate is used concurrently as an actuator and a structural member. The 830-mg robot is able to crawl on a smooth surface in open air, solely by undulation of its body. The microprocessor-controlled robot has an on-board lithium battery and uses a pulse-width-modulated signal to drive the IEAP actuator. The robot is able to carry its own power supply and even an extra payload. The constructed biomimetic robot is distinctive for the use of a non-planar actuator whose shape is programmed during the manufacturing process.

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to assemble astonishing pieces of a complicated puzzle, and realized that further advancement requires input from multiple branches of science, not just biology as the primary life science. Detailed hypotheses have been established about the different scenarios of the emergence of life, including the "RNA world," [1] the "lipid world," [2] "replicator first," [3] "metabolism first," [4][5][6] and others. Although the origin of life is still surrounded by many open questions, our understanding of chemical, physicochemical, and biochemical processes possibly involved in the ancient events preceding Darwinian evolution has seen much progress. We have come a long way from Leduc's physicochemical, inorganic matter-centered view on the beginning of the evolution, yet the matter of the transition from nonliving to living matter still remains largely unsolved, and one of the great scientific problems of our time.The phylogenetic tree of different living domains reflects that life has evolved from simple to more complex structures, i.e., from single-to multicellular organisms. The oldest fossil evidence dating back 3.5 Gy (billion years) comes from stromatolites, [7][8][9][10] microorganismal residues in sedimentary rocks. [11] There appears to be a gap of knowledge regarding the period of evolution between the first primitive hypothetical cells and the fossilized ancient bacteria, which can be considered as an already advanced form of life. [12] It is highly likely that intermediate primitive cell precursors preceded the single-cell organisms. The hypothetical prebiotic structures that were the stepping stone to first self-sustaining living cells are commonly termed "protocells." The possibility of a strong link between the formation of protocells and the origin of life can today be reasonably assumed.One cannot easily proceed in the context of the evolution of cell-based organisms without briefly illuminating the concept of life as we know it on our planet. Over time, different requirements have been proposed for an entity to be considered alive. According to Tibor Ganti's chemoton model, [13] a protocell contains three autocatalytic subsystems: a membrane subsystem that keeps the components together and intact, a metabolic subsystem that captures energy and material resources, and an information subsystem that processes and transfers heritable information to progeny. To be considered alive, these subsystems must be unified and function co-operatively for the survival and evolution of the supersystem. Pohorille and Deamer suggested a modified set of 7 criteria related to the chemoton. [14] At about the same time, Oro defined the requirements by 10 characteristic features. [15] Despite their differences, these descriptions align well with NASA's broader definition of life: "a self-sustaining chemical system capable of Darwinian evolution."The origin of life is still one of humankind's great mysteries. At the transition between nonliving and living matter, protocells, initially featureless aggregates of abiotic matter, ga...

A large-scale effort was carried out to test the performance of seven types of ionic electroactive polymer (IEAP) actuators in space-hazardous environmental factors in laboratory conditions. The results substantiate that the IEAP materials are tolerant to long-term freezing and vacuum environments as well as ionizing Gamma-, X-ray, and UV radiation at the levels corresponding to low Earth orbit (LEO) conditions. The main aim of this material behaviour investigation is to understand and predict device service time for prolonged exposure to space environment.

The electromechanically and mechano-electrically active three-layered laminate composed of a Nafion membrane, carbide-derived carbon-based electrodes, and a 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulphonate ionic liquid electrolyte responds to humidity gradient and can therefore serve as a differential humidity sensor or an energy harvesting element. The hydrophilic nature of all constituents of the laminate promotes sorption and diffusion of water across the membrane, causing large volumetric effects. Diffusion of water and the formation of a hydration shell around the ionic groups reorient and dislocate the ionic liquid ions, which in turn induce the formation of an electric charge across the electrodes exposed to different levels of ambient humidity. The generated electric charge can be registered as a voltage or electric current between the electrodes. Furthermore, the supercapacitor-like properties of the laminate allow storage of the electric charge in the same laminate, where it was generated.