Among the large set of cell surface glycan structures, the carbohydrate polymer polysialic acid (polySia) plays an important role in vertebrate brain development and synaptic plasticity. The main carrier of polySia in the nervous system is the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM. As polySia with chain lengths of more than 40 sialic acid residues was still observed in brain of newborn Ncam −/− mice, we performed a glycoproteomics approach to identify the underlying protein scaffolds. Affinity purification of polysialylated molecules from Ncam −/− brain followed by peptide mass fingerprinting led to the identification of the synaptic cell adhesion molecule SynCAM 1 as a so far unknown polySia carrier. SynCAM 1 belongs to the Ig superfamily and is a powerful inducer of synapse formation. Importantly, the appearance of polysialylated SynCAM 1 was not restricted to the Ncam −/− background but was found to the same extent in perinatal brain of WT mice. PolySia was located on N-glycans of the first Ig domain, which is known to be involved in homo- and heterophilic SynCAM 1 interactions. Both polysialyltransferases, ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV, were able to polysialylate SynCAM 1 in vitro, and polysialylation of SynCAM 1 completely abolished homophilic binding. Analysis of serial sections of perinatal Ncam −/− brain revealed that polySia-SynCAM 1 is expressed exclusively by NG2 cells, a multifunctional glia population that can receive glutamatergic input via unique neuron-NG2 cell synapses. Our findings sug-gest that polySia may act as a dynamic modulator of SynCAM 1 functions during integration of NG2 cells into neural networks.

SummaryThe extracellular polysaccharide capsule is an essential virulence factor of Neisseria meningitidis, a leading cause of severe bacterial meningitis and sepsis. Serogroup B strains, the primary disease causing isolates in Europe and America, are encapsulated in a-2,8 polysialic acid (polySia). The capsular polymer is synthesized from activated sialic acid by action of a membrane-associated polysialyltransferase (NmB-polyST). Here we present a comprehensive characterization of NmB-polyST. Different from earlier studies, we show that membrane association is not essential for enzyme functionality. Recombinant NmB-polyST was expressed, purified and shown to synthesize long polySia chains in a non-processive manner in vitro. Subsequent structure-function analyses of NmB-polyST based on refined sequence alignments allowed the identification of two functional motifs in bacterial sialyltransferases. Both (D/E-D/E-G and HP motif) are highly conserved among different sialyltransferase families with otherwise little or no sequence identity. Their functional importance for enzyme catalysis and CMP-Neu5Ac binding was demonstrated by mutational analysis of NmBpolyST and is emphasized by structural data available for the Pasteurella multocida sialyltransferase PmST1. Together our data are the first description of conserved functional elements in the highly diverse families of bacterial (poly)sialyltransferases and thus provide an advanced basis for understanding structure-function relations and for phylogenetic sorting of these important enzymes.

The post-translational modification of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) by polysialic acid (polySia) represents a remarkable example of dynamic modulation of homo-and heterophilic cell interactions by glycosylation. The synthesis of this unique carbohydrate polymer depends on the polysialyltransferases ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV. Aiming to understand in more detail the contributions of ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV to polySia biosynthesis in vivo, we used mutant mouse lines that differ in the number of functional polysialyltransferase alleles. The 1,2-diamino-4,5-methylenedioxybenzene method was used to qualitatively and quantitatively assess the polySia patterns. Similar to the wild-type genotype, long polySia chains (>50 residues) were detected in all genotypes expressing at least one functional polysialyltransferase allele. However, variant allelic combinations resulted in distinct alterations in the total amount of polySia; the relative abundance of long, medium, and short polymers; and the ratio of polysialylated to non-polysialylated NCAM. In ST8SiaII-null mice, 45% of the brain NCAM was non-polysialylated, whereas a single functional allele of ST8SiaII was sufficient to polysialylate ϳ90% of the NCAM pool. Our data reveal a complex polysialylation pattern and show that, under in vivo conditions, the coordinated action of ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV is crucial to fine-tune the amount and structure of polySia on NCAM.Carbohydrate modifications of proteins and lipids play an important role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system as mediators of cell recognition events (1). One striking example is polysialic acid (polySia), 2 a linear homopolymer of ␣2,8-linked N-acetylneuraminic acid. In vertebrates, polySia is found almost exclusively as a post-translational modification of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Attachment of polySia to NCAM was demonstrated to double the hydrodynamic radius of NCAM, thereby increasing the intermembrane space and disrupting the adhesive properties of NCAM and other cell adhesion molecules such as L1, integrins, and cadherins (2-4). PolySia promotes migration of neuronal precursor cells, axonal outgrowth, and synaptic plasticity (for review, see Ref. 5). In addition to its function as a negative regulator of cell adhesion, polySia was shown to bind heparan sulfate proteoglycans (6), forming a complex that supports synaptogenesis and activity-dependent remodeling of synapses (7). In addition, polySia can bind brain-derived neurotrophic factor to enhance brain-derived neurotrophic factor-dependent survival of cortical neurons (8, 9) and appears to be involved in the regulation of neurotransmitter receptor activity (10). Whereas polySia levels are high during embryonic development, expression in the adult is restricted to brain areas of persistent neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity (11).Interestingly, the biosynthesis of polySia depends on two enzymes, the Golgi-resident polysialyltransferases ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV, which s...

Polysialic acid (polySia), a post-translational modification of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), is the key regulator of NCAM-mediated functions and crucial for normal brain development, postnatal growth, and survival. Two polysialyltransferases, ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV, mediate polySia biosynthesis. To dissect the impact of each enzyme during postnatal brain development, we monitored the developmental changes in NCAM polysialylation in wild-type, ST8SiaII-, and ST8SiaIV-deficient mice using whole brain lysates obtained at 10 time points from postnatal days 1 to 21 and from adult mice. In wildtype and ST8SiaIV-null brain, polySia biosynthesis kept pace with the rapid increase in brain weight until day 9, and nearly all NCAM was polysialylated. Thereafter, polySia dropped by ϳ70% within 1 week, accompanied by the first occurrence of polySia-free NCAM-140 and NCAM-180. In ST8SiaII-null brain, polySia declined immediately after birth, leading to 60% less polySia at day 9 combined with the untimely appearance of polySia-free NCAM. Polysialyltransferase deficiency did not alter NCAM expression level or isoform pattern. In all three genotypes, NCAM-140 and NCAM-180 were expressed at constant levels from days 1 to 21 and provided the major polySia acceptors. By contrast, NCAM-120 first appeared at day 5, followed by a strong up-regulation inverse to the decrease in polySia. Together, we provide a comprehensive quantitative analysis of the developmental changes in polySia level, NCAM polysialylation status, and polysialyltransferase transcript levels and show that the predominant role of ST8SiaII during postnatal brain development is restricted to the first 15 days. Polysialic acid (polySia)2 is a unique post-translational modification primarily of the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM (1-3). Composed of ␣2,8-linked N-acetylneuraminic acid, polySia forms a large negatively charged and highly hydrated glycan structure that can extend beyond the protein core. Attachment of polySia to NCAM doubles the hydrodynamic radius of the extracellular part of NCAM, thereby increasing the intermembrane space and disrupting the adhesive properties of NCAM and other cell adhesion molecules (4 -6). Removal of polySia by treatment with endoneuraminidase, a bacteriophage-derived enzyme that specifically cleaves polySia (7), demonstrated intervention of polySia in dynamic cellular processes as different as migration of neuronal precursor cells, axonal outgrowth, synaptogenesis, physiological and morphological synaptic plasticity, and control of circadian rhythm (8 -15). Although polySia levels are high during embryonic development, expression in the adult is restricted to brain regions of persistent neural plasticity such as the subventricular zone, the rostral migratory stream toward the olfactory bulb, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal system (16 -18).The outstanding role of polySia in controlling NCAM interactions became apparent by the lethal phenotype of mice lacking polySia while retaining normal NCAM expr...

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and its post-translational modification polysialic acid (polySia) are broadly implicated in neural development. Mice lacking the polysialyltransferases ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV are devoid of polySia, and show severe malformation of major brain axon tracts. Here, we demonstrate how allelic variation of three interacting gene products (NCAM, ST8SiaII and ST8SiaIV) translates into various degrees of anterior commissure, corpus callosum and internal capsule hypoplasia. Loss of ST8SiaII alone caused mild, but distinct defects and the severity of the pathological phenotype found in mice lacking both polysialyltransferases could be stepwise attenuated by reducing NCAM expression. Analysis of mice with overall nine selected combinations of mutant NCAM and polysialyltransferase alleles revealed that the extent of the fibre tract deficiencies was not linked to the total amount of polySia or NCAM, but correlated strictly with the level of NCAM erroneously devoid of polySia during brain development. The defects implemented by the gain of polySia-free NCAM were reminiscent to abnormalities found in patients with schizophrenia. Since variations in NCAM1 and ST8SIA2 have been implicated in schizophrenia, these findings provide a mechanism how genetic interference with the complex coordination of NCAM polysialylation may lead to a neurodevelopmental predisposition to schizophrenia.

Despite its importance and all the considerable efforts made, the progress in drug discovery is limited. One main reason for this is the partly questionable data quality. Models relating biological activity and structures and in silico predictions rely on precisely and accurately measured binding data. However, these data vary so strongly, such that only variations by orders of magnitude are considered as unreliable. This can certainly be improved considering the high analytical performance in pharmaceutical quality control. Thus the principles, properties and performances of biochemical and cell-based assays are revisited and evaluated. In the part of biochemical assays immunoassays, fluorescence assays, surface plasmon resonance, isothermal calorimetry, nuclear magnetic resonance and affinity capillary electrophoresis are discussed in details, in addition radiation-based ligand binding assays, mass spectrometry, atomic force microscopy and microscale thermophoresis are briefly evaluated. In addition, general sources of error, such as solvent, dilution, sample pretreatment and the quality of reagents and reference materials are discussed. Biochemical assays can be optimized to provide good accuracy and precision (e.g. percental relative standard deviation <10 %). Cell-based assays are often considered superior related to the biological significance, however, typically they cannot still be considered as really quantitative, in particular when results are compared over longer periods of time or between laboratories. A very careful choice of assays is therefore recommended. Strategies to further optimize assays are outlined, considering the evaluation and the decrease of the relevant error sources. Analytical performance and data quality are still advancing and will further advance the progress in drug development.

Polysialic acid (polySia) is a major regulator of cell-cell interactions in the developing nervous system and a key factor in maintaining neural plasticity. As a polyanionic molecule with high water binding capacity, polySia increases the intercellular space and creates conditions that are permissive for cellular plasticity. While the prevailing model highlights polySia as a non-specific regulator of cell-cell contacts, this review concentrates on recent studies in knockout mice indicating that a crucial function of polySia resides in controlling interactions mediated by its predominant protein carrier, the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM.

The development of capillary electrophoresis, especially CE‐SDS devices, has led CE‐SDS to become an established tool in a wide range of applications in the analysis of biopharmaceuticals and is increasingly replacing its method of origin, SDS‐PAGE. The goal of this study was to evaluate the comparability of molecular weight (MW) determination especially by CE‐SDS and SDS‐PAGE. For ensuring comparability, model proteins that have little or no posttranslational modifications and an IgG antibody were used. Only a minor influence of sample preparation conditions, including sample buffer, temperature conditions, and different reducing agents on the MW determination were found. In contrast, the selection of the MW marker plays a decisive role in determining the accurate apparent MW of a protein. When using different MW markers, the deviation in MW determination can exceed 10%. Interestingly, CE‐SDS and 10% SDS‐PAGE hardly differ in their trueness of MW determination. The trueness in relation to the reference MW for each protein was calculated. Although the trueness values for the model proteins considered range between 1.00 and 1.11 using CE‐SDS, they range between 0.93 and 1.03 on SDS‐PAGE, depending on the experimental conditions chosen.