Objective. To determine how US and Canadian pharmacy schools include content related to health disparities and cultural competence and health literacy in curriculum as well as to review assessment practices. Methods. A cross-sectional survey was distributed to 143 accredited and candidate-status pharmacy programs in the United States and 10 in Canada in three phases. Statistical analysis was performed to assess inter-institutional variability and relationships between institutional characteristics and survey results. Results. After stratification by institutional characteristics, no significant differences were found between the 72 (50%) responding institutions in the United States and the eight (80%) in Canada. A core group of faculty typically taught health disparities and cultural competence content and/or health literacy. Health disparities and cultural competence was primarily taught in multiple courses across multiple years in the pre-APPE curriculum. While health literacy was primarily taught in multiple courses in one year in the pre-APPE curriculum in Canada (75.0%), delivery of health literacy was more varied in the United States, including in a single course (20.0%), multiple courses in one year (17.1%), and multiple courses in multiple years (48.6%). Health disparities and cultural competence and health literacy was mostly taught at the introduction or reinforcement level. Active-learning approaches were mostly used in the United States, whereas in Canada active learning was more frequently used in teaching health literacy (62.5%) than health disparities and cultural competence (37.5%). Few institutions reported providing professional preceptor development. Conclusion.The majority of responding pharmacy schools in the United States and Canada include
Objective. To detail strategies reported in the literature for strengthening both health disparities and cultural competency (HDCC) instruction within various portions of pharmacy curriculum and co-curriculum.Findings. An appraisal of current strategies for incorporation of HDCC into each aspect of the pharmacy curriculum and co-curriculum revealed a paucity of literature describing processes for incorporation of both health disparities (HD) and cultural competency (CC) teaching throughout the pharmacy student's experience. Classroom strategies involved a single or series of courses in HDCC. Activities found to be effective involved case-based and community engagement exercises. Described recommendations for experiential education included preceptor development in areas of HDCC in order to assess student understanding of health disparities concepts, increasing student engagement with diverse patient populations, and implementation of cross-cultural communication models at clinical sites. Co-curricular and interprofessional (IPE) portions of pharmacy training were found to permit greater methodological flexibility, as they often confronted fewer time or space constraints than classroom endeavors. Documented methods for teaching of HDCC within co-curricular and IPE experiences included service learning, study abroad, symposia, and forums. Summary. Findings suggest that conceptual frameworks for HDCC should be utilized throughout the pharmacy curriculum, with learning activities mapped to relevant pharmacy education standards to ensure coverage of important practice competencies. Best practices also involve the use of contemporary tools, strategies, and resources from a crosssection of disciplines that provide opportunities for learners to correct misconceptions and biases through active situational problem-solving.
Objective. To present antiracism teaching as a key modality and an "upstream" approach to addressing health disparities in pharmacy education. Relevant theoretical frameworks and pedagogical strategies utilized in other health disciplines will be reviewed to present how antiracism curricula can be integrated into pharmacy educational outcomes. Findings. Various disciplines have incorporated antiracism pedagogy in their respective programs and accreditation standards. While challenges to implementation are acknowledged, structural racism continues to compromise health outcomes and should be centralized when addressing health disparities. Conclusion.Pharmacy curricula has explored and implemented cultural competency as a means to address the social determinants of health. By intentionally addressing racism in the context of health disparities, student pharmacists will further acknowledge racism as a public health issue and a systemic barrier to patient centered care.
Global engagement between schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States and Africa is increasing. For a balanced and fruitful engagement, sensitivity towards the cultural and clinical needs of the people and professionals of the African region is critical. In this paper, we have divided the discussion into Southern, East, Central, and West Africa. General information about Africa, with unique aspects for individual subregions and countries, will be introduced. Stereotypes and misconceptions about the region and the people will also be discussed, along with recommendations for culturally sensitive engagement for pharmacy and other health care practitioners when hosting members from, or visiting this region. The paper is a resource for schools and colleges of pharmacy who are currently engaged or considering future outreach opportunities in Africa.
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