Although Indonesia’s electrification ratio reached 99.2% in 2020, it has shown stagnating electrification since 2018. This is because most of the remaining areas that need to be electrified are remote and have unique characteristics that hamper implementation of microgrids for providing energy access. Furthermore, not only the deployment but also the long-term sustainability of microgrids is crucial for ensuring continuity of energy access. This paper aims to investigate the scaling and sustainability challenges of remote microgrid development in Indonesia by analyzing microgrids in the Maluku and North Maluku provinces. This study is a two-part publication; the first part focuses on identifying challenges in Indonesia’s remote microgrid development, while the second part focuses on potential technology solutions. In the first part, an assessment of energy access within a multi-tier framework was conducted, which was then analyzed using a multi-dimensional (institutional, social, technical, economic, environmental, and policy) approach adapted from the literature. The framework was expanded by mapping the challenges onto specific phases of the microgrid development, which is intended to be helpful for the parties involved in specific phases. It is shown that the challenges related to unclear land status, lack of social engagement, preliminary survey, technical and practical knowledge, and O&M procedures—especially for remote microgrids with renewable energy sources—are the most prominent issues. Additionally, issues caused by electrical events and environmental conditions such as relatively humid and high-temperatures, and uncontrolled vegetation, rodents, insects, and lizards are often found. Furthermore, a high-level technological outlook to address some of these issues is presented.
Abstract-The paper provides a comparison of four PV-battery architectures with dc and ac backbones, in terms of autarky, energy efficiency, battery size and reduction of annual electricity cost. The comparison is conducted based on the residential load and irradiation data from the Netherlands. The effect of different PV generation is also analyzed by comparing the results with irradiation data from Costa Rica. The results show that the ac coupled architecture gives the best performance.
Future office buildings are expected to be integrated with energy intensive, inherently DC components such as photovoltaic panels (PV), electric vehicles (EV), LED lighting, and battery storage. This paper conceptualizes the interconnection of these components through a 750 V DC nanogrid as against a conventional three-phase 400 V AC system. The factors influencing the performance of a DC-based nanogrid are identified and a comparative analysis with respect to a conventional AC nanogrid is presented in terms of efficiency, stability, and protection. It is proved how the minimization of grid energy exchange through power management is a vital system design choice. Secondly, the trade-off between stability, protection, and cost for sizing of the DC buffer capacitors is explored. The transient system response to different fault conditions for both AC and DC nanogrid is investigated. Finally the differences between the two systems in terms of various safety aspects are highlighted.
Operation of microgrids requires intensive monitoring and control between components through a communication network. A harsh signal environment in a microgrid might disrupt the communication and lead to component failures. Filters are required to protect the critical equipment and ensure seamless communication while filters could also influence communication signals. This paper analyzes the filter effectiveness in microgrid applications, which is illustrated by a mismatch between source and load impedances.The observed filter includes components' parasitics and imperfect inductor coupling as its nonideal characteristics. Due to the converter's switching frequency, a mismatch between source and load impedances, and unintentional inductance in the ground wire, reduced attenuation could be expected for a filter that is implemented in a microgrid.
Providing electricity access to the farthest consumer in remote areas with limited infrastructure may require long low voltage cables. This could result in a high network impedance, hence high losses and high voltage drop. Moreover, the increasing adoption of power electronics in household appliances introduces nonlinear currents, which could also increase the losses. In terms of power quality, both high network impedance and nonlinear current will result in voltage distortion that could undermine the system's efficiency and reliability. Focusing on the effect of the network impedance at the frequency range of 1-150 kHz, this paper aims to investigate the electromagnetic compatibility issues that might be imposed by a long-span low voltage cable up to 2 km. The results show a nonlinear correlation between the voltage distortion, cable length and current amplitude. Furthermore, a noticeable increase in voltage distortion at the load side should be expected in a system with a higher source impedance as in remote microgrids. It can be reduced by implementing a capacitor bank at the source or a passive filter at the load side.
Electrifying rural areas using a PV system combined with a diesel generator is one of the solutions to address geographical difficulties. However, the system could introduce power quality problems. Implementing a hybrid energy storage system could be one of the solutions to mitigate power quality issues. This paper investigates a hybrid energy storage of battery and supercapacitor to improve the power quality of a PV-diesel off-grid system. The system was modeled and simulated using Matlab Simulink, with reference to the system's characteristics in a remote area in Indonesia. It was shown that the implementation of a hybrid energy storage system could mitigate voltage sags and improve battery life expectancy, which are common issues in remote areas. The higher battery life is important for the context of remote areas given the difficulties in battery replacement due to geographical challenges.
This paper analyzes the behavior of transient switching silicon carbide devices influenced by the parasitics of printed circuit board and the component itself. The parasitics in power and gate driver loops are described and investigated. Double pulse test simulations for silicon carbide devices are conducted in this report and verified through the circuit simulation. The parasitics in the printed circuit board are added based on the real experience printed circuit board design and the parasitics in silicon carbide devices are added based on the manufacturer modelling. The parasitic inductances in the simulation are varied +/-30% to understand the effect of the parasitics. The drain and source parasitic inductances and the gate parasitic resistance are simulated separately to understand the individual effect on the ringing of silicon carbide devices. The ringing impact on the reliability of devices is also analyzed in this paper.
This paper is the companion paper of Remote Microgrids for Energy Access in Indonesia “Part I: scaling and sustainability challenges and a technology outlook”. This part II investigates the issues of photovoltaic (PV) systems with respect to the planning, design, and operation, and maintenance phases in microgrids in Indonesia. The technology outlooks are also included as PV has an important role in providing electricity in the underdeveloped, isolated, and border areas. The data in this paper are from PV microgrids located in Maluku and North Maluku, which are two provinces where there is barely any grid connection available and thus very dependent on remote microgrids. The data are obtained from interviews with Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN) and NZMATES, which are an Indonesian utility company and a program for supporting role for the PV systems in Maluku funded by New Zealand respectively. Common issues with respect to reliability and sustainability are identified based on the provided data. Advanced technologies to increase reliability and sustainability are also presented in this paper as a technology outlook. Among these solutions are online monitoring systems, PV and battery lifetime estimation, load forecasting strategies, and PV inverters technology.
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