How individuals choose evidence to test hypotheses is a long-standing puzzle. According to an algorithmic theory that we present, it is based on dual processes: individuals' intuitions depending on mental models of the hypothesis yield selections of evidence matching instances of the hypothesis, but their deliberations yield selections of potential counterexamples to the hypothesis. The results of 228 experiments using Wason's selection task corroborated the theory's predictions. Participants made dependent choices of items of evidence: the selections in 99 experiments were significantly more redundant (using Shannon's measure) than those of 10,000 simulations of each experiment based on independent selections. Participants tended to select evidence corresponding to instances of hypotheses, or to its counterexamples, or to both. Given certain contents, instructions, or framings of the task, they were more likely to select potential counterexamples to the hypothesis. When participants received feedback about their selections in the "repeated" selection task, they switched from selections of instances of the hypothesis to selection of potential counterexamples. These results eliminated most of the 15 alternative theories of selecting evidence. In a meta-analysis, the model theory yielded a better fit of the results of 228 experiments than the one remaining theory based on reasoning rather than meaning. We discuss the implications of the model theory for hypothesis testing and for a well-known paradox of confirmation. (PsycINFO Database Record

Personal assistant agents have been developed to help people in their daily lives with tasks such as agenda management. In order to provide better support, they should not only model the user's internal aspects, but also their social situation. Current research on social context tackles this by modelling the social aspects of a situation from an objective perspective. In our approach, we model these social aspects of the situation from the user's subjective perspective. We do so by using concepts from social science, and in turn apply machine learning techniques to predict the priority that the user would assign to these situations. Furthermore, we show that using these techniques allows agents to determine which features influenced these predictions. Results based on a crowd-sourcing user study suggest that our proposed model would enable personal assistant agents to differentiate between situations with high and low priority. We believe this to be a first step towards agents that better understand the user's social situation, and adapt their support accordingly.

Behaviour support agents need to be aware of the social environment of the user in order to be able to provide comprehensive support. However, this is a feature that is currently lacking in existing systems. To tackle it, first of all we explore literature from social sciences in order to find which elements of the social environment need to be represented. We structure this knowledge as a two-level ontology that models social situations. We formalize the elements that are needed to model social situations, which consist of different types of meetings between two people. We conduct an experiment to evaluate the lower level of the ontology using feedback from the subjects, and to test whether we can use the data to reason about the priority of different situations. Subjects found our proposed features of social relationships to be understandable and representative. Furthermore, we show these features can be combined in a decision tree to predict the priority of social situations.

Support agents that help users in their daily lives need to take into account not only the user's characteristics, but also the social situation of the user. Existing work on including social context uses some type of situation cue as an input to information processing techniques in order to assess the expected behavior of the user. However, research shows that it is important to also determine the meaning of a situation, a step which we refer to as social situation comprehension. We propose using psychological characteristics of situations, which have been proposed in social science for ascribing meaning to situations, as the basis for social situation comprehension. Using data from user studies, we evaluate this proposal from two perspectives. First, from a technical perspective, we show that psychological characteristics of situations can be used as input to predict the priority of social situations, and that psychological characteristics of situations can be predicted from the features of a social situation. Second, we investigate the role of the comprehension step in human-machine meaning making. We show that psychological characteristics can be successfully used as a basis for explanations given to users about the decisions of an agenda management personal assistant agent.

Artificial agents that support people in their daily activities (e.g., virtual coaches and personal assistants) are increasingly prevalent. Since many daily activities are social in nature, support agents should understand a user's social situation to offer comprehensive support. However, there are no systematic approaches for developing support agents that are social situation aware. We identify key requirements for a support agent to be social situation aware and propose steps to realize those requirements. These steps are presented through a conceptual architecture centered on two key ideas: 1) conceptualizing social situation awareness as an instantiation of "general" situation awareness, and 2) using situation taxonomies for such instantiation. This enables support agents to represent a user's social situation, comprehend its meaning, and assess its impact on the user's behavior. We discuss empirical results supporting the effectiveness of the proposed approach and illustrate how the architecture can be used in support agents through two use cases.

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Personal values represent what people find important in their lives, and are key drivers of human behavior. For this reason, support agents should provide help that is aligned with the personal values of the users. To do this, the support agent not only should know the value preferences of the user, but also how different situations in the user’s life affect these personal values. We represent situations using their psychological characteristics, and we build predictive models that given the psychological characteristics of a situation, predict whether the situation promotes, demotes or does not affect a personal value. In this work, we focus on predictions for the value ‘enjoyment of life’, and use different machine learning classifiers, all of them performing better than chance when training on data from multiple people. The best predictive model is a multi-layer perceptron classifier, which achieves an accuracy of 72%. Further, we hypothesize that the accuracy of such models would drop when tested on individual data sets. The data supports our hypothesis, and the accuracy of the best performing model drops by at least 11% when tested on individual data. To tackle this, we propose an active learning procedure to build personalized prediction models having the user in the loop. Results show that this approach outperforms the previously built model while using only 30% of the training data. Our findings suggest that how situations affect personal values can have subjective interpretations, but we can account for those subjective interpretations by involving the user when building a prediction model.

Support agents that help users in their daily lives need to take into account not only the user’s characteristics, but also the social situation of the user. Existing work on including social context uses some type of situation cue as an input to information processing techniques in order to assess the expected behavior of the user. However, research shows that it is important to also determine the meaning of a situation, a step which we refer to as social situation comprehension. We propose using psychological characteristics of situations, which have been proposed in social science for ascribing meaning to situations, as the basis for social situation comprehension. Using data from user studies, we evaluate this proposal from two perspectives. First, from a technical perspective, we show that psychological characteristics of situations can be used as input to predict the priority of social situations, and that psychological characteristics of situations can be predicted from the features of a social situation. Second, we investigate the role of the comprehension step in human–machine meaning making. We show that psychological characteristics can be successfully used as a basis for explanations given to users about the decisions of an agenda management personal assistant agent.