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The scopes related to the interplay between stem cells and the immune system are broad and range from the basic understanding of organism’s physiology and ecology to translational studies, further contributing to (eco)toxicology, biotechnology, and medicine as well as regulatory and ethical aspects. Stem cells originate immune cells through hematopoiesis, and the interplay between the two cell types is required in processes like regeneration. In addition, stem and immune cell anomalies directly affect the organism’s functions, its ability to cope with environmental changes and, indirectly, its role in ecosystem services. However, stem cells and immune cells continue to be considered parts of two branches of biological research with few interconnections between them. This review aims to bridge these two seemingly disparate disciplines towards much more integrative and transformative approaches with examples deriving mainly from aquatic invertebrates. We discuss the current understanding of cross-disciplinary collaborative and emerging issues, raising novel hypotheses and comments. We also discuss the problems and perspectives of the two disciplines and how to integrate their conceptual frameworks to address basic equations in biology in a new, innovative way.

Migratory birds are considered one of the main sources for West Nile virus (WNV) introduction into European countries. Following the WNV epidemic in the late summer of 1998 in a marshy area of Tuscany (Padule of Fucecchio), an extensive ornithological surveillance programme was carried out in the infected areas from 2006 to 2008. Several species of migratory and resident birds were trapped, sampled and serologically tested. The results of this surveillance programme gave a useful indication of potential sources of WNV re-introduction and spread into Italy. The area under study was also investigated and classified into ecological areas through satellite image processing. In August 2008, the WNV infection re-emerged in Italy in the area surrounding the Po river delta, involving three regions: Lombardy, Emilia Romagna and Veneto. Several surveillance activities were immediately put in place, including the extensive monitoring of wild birds found dead or trapped in the framework of other surveillance programmes. These activities were also prolonged in the 2009, when the virus circulation re-occurred at the border of the area already infected in 2008. The possible epidemiological role of the different species of migratory and resident birds is discussed, in relation to the different ecological patterns identified in the area and their potential ability to introduce, spread and support the endemization of WNV infection.

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