WHAT'S KNOWN ON THIS SUBJECT: Previous research has shown the following: the mere presence of weapons can increase aggression, dubbed the "weapons effect"; violence in films has increased over time; and violent films can increase aggression. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS:This study examines a potential source of the "weapons effect": the presence of guns in films. In just 20 years, gun violence in PG-13 films (age 131) has increased from the level in films rated G/PG to the point where it exceeds the level in R films. abstract BACKGROUND: Many scientific studies have shown that the mere presence of guns can increase aggression, an effect dubbed the "weapons effect." The current research examines a potential source of the weapons effect: guns depicted in top-selling films. METHODS:Trained coders identified the presence of violence in each 5-minute film segment for one-half of the top 30 films since 1950 and the presence of guns in violent segments since 1985, the first full year the PG-13 rating (age 131) was used. PG-13-rated films are among the top-selling films and are especially attractive to youth. RESULTS:Results found that violence in films has more than doubled since 1950, and gun violence in PG-13-rated films has more than tripled since 1985. When the PG-13 rating was introduced, these films contained about as much gun violence as G (general audiences) and PG (parental guidance suggested for young children) films. Since 2009, PG-13-rated films have contained as much or more violence as R-rated films (age 171) films. CONCLUSIONS:Even if youth do not use guns, these findings suggest that they are exposed to increasing gun violence in top-selling films. By including guns in violent scenes, film producers may be strengthening the weapons effect and providing youth with scripts for using guns. These findings are concerning because many scientific studies have shown that violent films can increase aggression. Violent films are also now easily accessible to youth (eg, on the Internet and cable). This research suggests that the presence of weapons in films might amplify the effects of violent films on aggression. 3 In theater, scripts tell actors what to do and say. In memory, scripts define situations and guide behavior; the person first selects a script for the situation, assumes a role in that script, and then behaves according to it. A script may be learned through direct experience or by observing others, such as violent characters in the mass media. 4 The media provide scripts for gun use. Gun violence in films might also encourage an association between guns and violence.In the wake of recent shooting sprees, legislators and the lay public are discussing possible ways to reduce youth violence. What is conspicuously absent from these discussions, however, is the fact that just seeing a weapon can increase aggression, an effect dubbed the "weapons effect."Guns not only permit violence, they can stimulate it as well. The finger pulls the trigger, but the trigger may also be pulling the finger.Leonard Berkowitz, Psyc...

After exploring the challenges involved in defining incivility, this chapter addresses the evolution of the concept, notes the dispute over trend lines, and précises work on its psychological effects. It then outlines some functions that civility and incivility serve, such as the functions of differentiating and mobilizing, marginalizing the powerless, expressing, and deliberating. The use of calls for civility as a means of social control is discussed, and then the chapter flags questions worthy of additional attention.

Alcohol use and sexual behavior are important risk behaviors in adolescent development, and combining the two is common. The reasoned action approach is used to predict adolescents’ intention to combine alcohol use and sexual behavior based on exposure to alcohol and sex combinations in popular entertainment media. We conducted a content analysis of mainstream (n=29) and Black-oriented movies (n= 34) from 2014 and 2013–2014, respectively, and 56 television shows (2014–15 season). Content analysis ratings featuring character portrayals of both alcohol and sex within the same 5-minute segment were used to create exposure measures that were linked to online survey data collected from 1,990 14–17 year-old adolescents (50.3% Black, 49.7% White, 48.1% female). Structural equation modeling and group analysis by race were used to test whether attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control mediated the effects of media exposure on intention to combine alcohol and sex. Results suggest that for both White and Black adolescents, exposure to media portrayals of alcohol and sex combinations is positively associated with adolescents’ attitudes and norms. These relationships were stronger among White adolescents. Intention was predicted by attitude, norms, and control, but only the attitude-intention relationship was different by race group (stronger for Whites).

Media violence exposure (MVE) is associated with aggressive outcomes in adolescents. However, based on the differential susceptibility hypothesis, this risk is expected to vary based on the individual's unique risk and protective factors. Using survey data from 1,990 adolescents (Mean age = 15.6 ± 1.10 years; 48% female) and content analysis of U.S. top‐grossing films and popular TV shows, we evaluated the effect of MVE in relation to both risk (i.e., family conflict, impulsivity, sensation seeking) and protective factors (i.e., parental monitoring, parental involvement, parental mediation). Relative weights analyses revealed that MVE was one of the strongest predictors of aggression, after impulsivity and family conflict. The cumulative risk score showed a linear and quadratic relation with the likelihood of aggression, with MVE and family conflict having an interactive relation in predicting aggression. Parental monitoring remained a significant protective factor even when all risk factors were accounted for. Targeted preventive interventions that reduce family conflict, promote parental monitoring, and reduce exposure to violent media may be effective in reducing aggressive tendencies and related negative outcomes.

After exploring the challenges involved in defining incivility, this chapter addresses the evolution of the concept, notes the dispute over trend lines, and précises work on its psychological effects. It then outlines some functions that civility and incivility serve, such as the functions of differentiating and mobilizing, marginalizing the powerless, expressing, and deliberating. The use of calls for civility as a means of social control is discussed, and then the chapter flags questions worthy of additional attention.