The conformational change in amyloid ␤ (A␤) peptide from its monomeric form to aggregates is crucial in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the healthy brain, some unidentified chaperones appear to prevent the aggregation of A␤. aggregation ͉ Alzheimer's disease ͉ mouse ͉ surface plasmon resonance ͉ thioflavin T

Niemann-Pick type C1 (NPC1) disease is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by neuronal lipid storage and progressive Purkinje cell loss in the cerebellum. We investigated whether therapeutic approaches to bypass the cholesterol trafficking defect in NPC1 disease might delay disease progression in the npc1 ؊/؊ mouse model. We show that the neurosteroid allopregnanolone (ALLO) and T0901317, a synthetic oxysterol ligand, act in concert to delay onset of neurological symptoms and prolong the lifespan of npc1 ؊/؊ mice. ALLO and T0901317 therapy preserved Purkinje cells, suppressed cerebellar expression of microglial-associated genes and inflammatory mediators, and reduced infiltration of activated microglia in the cerebellar tissue. To establish whether the mechanism of neuroprotection in npc1 ؊/؊ mice involves GABAA receptor activation, we compared treatment of natural ALLO and ent-ALLO, a stereoisomer that has identical physical properties of natural ALLO but is not a GABA A receptor agonist. ent-ALLO provided identical functional and survival benefits as natural ALLO in npc1 ؊/؊ mice, strongly supporting a GABAA receptor-independent mechanism for ALLO action. On the other hand, the efficacy of ALLO, ent-ALLO, and T0901317 therapy correlated with the ability of these compounds to activate pregnane X receptor-dependent pathways in vivo. These findings suggest that treatment with pregnane X receptor ligands may be useful clinically in delaying the progressive neurodegeneration in human NPC disease.cholesterol ͉ neurosteroid ͉ allopregnanolone ͉ neurodegeneration N iemann-Pick type C (NPC) disease is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by accumulation of cholesterol and other lipids in the viscera and central nervous system and patterned Purkinje cell death in the cerebellum (1). Mutations in the NPC1 gene are responsible for Ϸ95% of human NPC disease. NPC1 loss-of-function mutants exhibit marked impairment of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol esterification and mobilization of newly hydrolyzed LDL cholesterol to the plasma membrane (2-4), resulting in lysosomal sequestration of LDL cholesterol, delayed down-regulation of the LDL receptor and de novo cholesterol biosynthesis, and impaired ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux (5-7). Despite recent progress in characterizing the biochemical and genetic defects in NPC disease, the mechanisms underlying the neurodegenerative phenotype are not well understood. Moreover, at present there are no effective therapies that delay progression of human NPC disease.Many of the prominent neuropathological features of human NPC disease [e.g., neuronal lipid storage and progressive loss of Purkinje neurons (1)] are recapitulated in the BALB͞c NPC nih (npc1 Ϫ/Ϫ ) mouse, a naturally occurring murine model that harbors a retroposon insertion in the Npc1 gene (8, 9). In NPC1 mice, accumulation of unesterified cholesterol and gangliosides occurs in morphologically normal neurons as early as postnatal day 9 (P9) and precedes neuronal injury and c...

Prostaglandin (PG) D 2 is well known as a mediator of inflammation. Hematopoietic PGD synthase (HPGDS) is responsible for the production of PGD 2 involved in inflammatory responses. Microglial activation and astrogliosis are commonly observed during neuroinflammation, including that which occurs during demyelination. Using the genetic demyelination mouse twitcher, a model of human Krabbe's disease, we discovered that activated microglia expressed HPGDS and activated astrocytes expressed the DP 1 receptor for PGD 2 in the brain of these mice. Cultured microglia actively produced PGD 2 by the action of HPGDS. Cultured astrocytes expressed two types of PGD 2 receptor, DP 1 and DP 2 , and showed enhanced GFAP production after stimulation of either receptor with its respective agonist. These results suggest that PGD 2 plays an important role in microglia/astrocyte interaction. We demonstrated that the blockade of the HPGDS/PGD 2 /DP signaling pathway using HPGDS-or DP 1 -null twitcher mice, and twitcher mice treated with an HPGDS inhibitor, HQL-79 (4-benzhydryloxy-1-[3-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl)-propyl]piperidine), resulted in remarkable suppression of astrogliosis and demyelination, as well as a reduction in twitching and spasticity. Furthermore, we found that the degree of oligodendroglial apoptosis was also reduced in HPGDS-null and HQL-79-treated twitcher mice. These results suggest that PGD 2 is the key neuroinflammatory molecule that heightens the pathological response to demyelination in twitcher mice.

Although our results on the efficacy of long-term nasal OT therapy still remain controversial, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report documenting the safety of long-term nasal OT therapy for children with ASD. Even though our data are too preliminary to draw any definite conclusions about efficacy, they do suggest this therapy to be safe, promising, and worthy of a large-scale, double-blind placebo-controlled study.

We applied high-resolution laser-scanning microscopy, electron microscopy, and non-radioactive in situ hybridization histochemistry to determine the cellular and intracellular localization of lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase, the major brain-derived protein component of cerebrospinal fluid, and its mRNA in leptomeninges, choroid plexus, and parenchyma of the adult rat brain. Both immunoreactivity and mRNA for prostaglandin D synthase were located in arachnoid barrier cells, arachnoid trabecular cells, and arachnoid pia mater cells. Furthermore, meningeal macrophages and perivascular microglial cells, identified by use of ED2 antibody, were immunopositive for prostaglandin D synthase. In the arachnoid trabecular cells, the immunoreactivity for prostaglandin D synthase was located in the nuclear envelope, Golgi apparatus, and secretory vesicles, indicating the active production and secretion of prostaglandin D synthase. In the meningeal macrophages, prostaglandin D synthase was not found around the nucleus but in lysosomes in the cytoplasm, pointing to an uptake of the protein from the cerebrospinal fluid. Furthermore, the existence of meningeal cyclooxygenase (COX) -1 and COX-2 was investigated by Western blot, Northern blot, and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and the colocalization of COX-2 and prostaglandin D synthase was demonstrated in virtually all cells of the leptomeninges, choroid plexus epithelial cells, and perivascular microglial cells, suggesting that these cells synthesize prostaglandin D(2) actively. Alternatively, oligodendrocytes showed prostaglandin D synthase immunoreactivity without detectable COX-2. The localization of lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase in meningeal cells and its colocalization with COX-2 provide evidence for its function as a prostaglandin D(2)-producing enzyme.

The genetic demyelinating mouse "twitcher" is a model of the human globoid cell leukodystrophy, caused by galactosylceramidase (GALC) deficiency. Demyelination in the twitcher brain is secondary to apoptotic death of oligodendrocytes (OLs). Lipocalin-type prostaglandin (PG) D synthase (L-PGDS), a protein expressed in mature OLs, was progressively upregulated in twitcher OLs; whereas expression of OL-associated proteins such as carbonic anhydrase II, myelin basic protein, and myelin-associated glycoprotein was downregulated during demyelination in twitcher brains. The upregulation of L-PGDS was more remarkable in perineuronal OLs than in interfascicular OLs. A larger number of L-PGDS-positive OLs was found in selected fiber tracts of twitcher brains where fewer apoptotic cells were detected. The distribution of L-PGDS-positive OLs was inversely related to the severity of demyelination, as assessed by accumulation of scavenger macrophages. Mice doubly deficient for L-PGDS and GALC disclosed a large number of apoptotic neurons, which were never seen in twitcher brains, in addition to an increased number of apoptotic OLs. A linear positive correlation was observed between the population of L-PGDS-positive OLs in the twitcher brain and the ratio of apoptotic nuclei in the double mutant versus those in the twitcher, suggesting a dose-dependent effect of L-PGDS against apoptosis. These lines of evidence suggest that L-PGDS is an anti-apoptotic molecule protecting neurons and OLs from apoptosis in the twitcher mouse. This is a novel example of OL-neuronal interaction.

the characteristic thyroid hormone function tests and brain MRI findings may allow screening of high-risk populations for a better understanding of MCT8 pathophysiology.

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