In this study, we combined linkage analysis with whole-exome sequencing of two individuals to identify candidate causal variants in a moderately-sized UK kindred exhibiting autosomal-dominant inheritance of craniocervical dystonia. Subsequent screening of these candidate causal variants in a large number of familial and sporadic cases of cervical dystonia led to the identification of a total of six putatively pathogenic mutations in ANO3, a gene encoding a predicted Ca(2+)-gated chloride channel that we show to be highly expressed in the striatum. Functional studies using Ca(2+) imaging in case and control fibroblasts demonstrated clear abnormalities in endoplasmic-reticulum-dependent Ca(2+) signaling. We conclude that mutations in ANO3 are a cause of autosomal-dominant craniocervical dystonia. The locus DYT23 has been reserved as a synonym for this gene. The implication of an ion channel in the pathogenesis of dystonia provides insights into an alternative mechanism that opens fresh avenues for further research.

IntroductionKnowledge regarding tremor prevalence and phenomenology in patients with adult-onset primary dystonia is limited. Dystonic tremor is presumably under-reported, and we aimed to assess the prevalence and the clinical correlates of tremor in patients with adult-onset primary dystonia.MethodsWe enrolled 473 consecutive patients with different types of adult-onset primary dystonia. They were assessed for presence of head tremor and arm tremor (rest, postural and kinetic).ResultsA total of 262 patients (55.4%) were tremulous: 196 patients presented head tremor, 140 patients presented arm tremor and 98 of them had a combination of head and arm tremor. Of the 140 patients with arm tremor, all presented postural tremor, 103 patients (73.6%) presented also a kinetic component, whereas 57 patients (40.7%) had rest tremor. Rest tremor was unilateral/asymmetric in up to 92.9% of them. Patients with segmental and multifocal dystonia were more likely tremulous than patients with focal dystonia. Dystonic symptoms involving the neck were more frequently observed in patients with head tremor, whereas dystonic symptoms involving the arms were more frequently observed in patients with arm tremor.DiscussionHere we show that tremor is a common feature of patients with adult-onset primary dystonia. It may involve different body segments, with the head being the most commonly affected site. Arm tremor is also frequent (postural>kinetic>rest), occurring in up to one-third of cases. There is a suggestion of a stronger tendency for spread of dystonic features in patients with associated tremor. Dystonic tremor is under-reported and this underscores the importance of careful clinical examination when assessing tremulous patients without overt dystonia.

We assessed the duration and severity of tremor in a real-life ambulatory setting in patients with psychogenic and organic tremor by actigraphy, and compared this with self-reports of tremor over the same period. Ten participants with psychogenic tremor and eight with organic tremor, diagnosed using standardized clinical criteria, were studied. In an explicit design, participants were asked to wear a small actigraph capable of continuously monitoring tremor duration and intensity for 5 days while keeping a diary of their estimates of tremor duration during the same period. Eight patients with psychogenic tremor and all patients with organic tremor completed the study. Psychogenic patients reported significantly more of the waking day with tremor compared with patients with organic tremor (83.5 ± 14.0% of the waking day versus 58.0 ± 19.0% of the waking day; P < 0.01), despite having almost no tremor recorded by actigraphy (3.9 ± 3.7% of the waking day versus 24.8 ± 7.7% of the waking day; P = 0.001). Patients with organic tremor reported 28% more tremor than actigraphy recordings, whereas patients with psychogenic tremor reported 65% more tremor than actigraphy. These data demonstrate that patients with psychogenic tremor fail to accurately perceive that they do not have tremor most of the day. The explicit study design we employed does not support the hypothesis that these patients are malingering. We discuss how these data can be understood within models of active inference in the brain to provide a neurobiological framework for understanding the mechanism of psychogenic tremor.

Myoclonus-dystonia (M-D) is a rare movement disorder characterized by a combination of non-epileptic myoclonic jerks and dystonia. SGCE mutations represent a major cause for familial M-D being responsible for 30%-50% of cases. After excluding SGCE mutations, we identified through a combination of linkage analysis and whole-exome sequencing KCTD17 c.434 G>A p.(Arg145His) as the only segregating variant in a dominant British pedigree with seven subjects affected by M-D. A subsequent screening in a cohort of M-D cases without mutations in SGCE revealed the same KCTD17 variant in a German family. The clinical presentation of the KCTD17-mutated cases was distinct from the phenotype usually observed in M-D due to SGCE mutations. All cases initially presented with mild myoclonus affecting the upper limbs. Dystonia showed a progressive course, with increasing severity of symptoms and spreading from the cranio-cervical region to other sites. KCTD17 is abundantly expressed in all brain regions with the highest expression in the putamen. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis, based on mRNA expression profile of brain samples from neuropathologically healthy individuals, showed that KCTD17 is part of a putamen gene network, which is significantly enriched for dystonia genes. Functional annotation of the network showed an over-representation of genes involved in post-synaptic dopaminergic transmission. Functional studies in mutation bearing fibroblasts demonstrated abnormalities in endoplasmic reticulum-dependent calcium signaling. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the KCTD17 c.434 G>A p.(Arg145His) mutation causes autosomal dominant M-D. Further functional studies are warranted to further characterize the nature of KCTD17 contribution to the molecular pathogenesis of M-D.

Genes causing primary dystonia are rare. Recently, pathogenic mutations in the anoctamin 3 gene (ANO3) have been identified to cause autosomal dominant craniocervical dystonia and have been assigned to the dystonia locus dystonia-24 (DYT24). Here, we expand on the phenotypic spectrum of DYT24 and provide demonstrative videos. Moreover, tremor recordings were performed, and back-averaged electroencephalography, sensory evoked potentials, and C-reflex studies were carried out in two individuals who carried two different mutations in ANO3. Ten patients from three families are described. The age at onset ranged from early childhood to the forties. Cervical dystonia was the most common site of onset followed by laryngeal dystonia. The characteristic feature in all affected individuals was the presence of tremor, which contrasts DYT24 from the typical DYT6 phenotype. Tremor was the sole initial manifestation in some individuals with ANO3 mutations, leading to misdiagnosis as essential tremor. Electrophysiology in two patients with two different mutations showed co-contraction of antagonist muscles, confirming dystonia, and a 6-Hz arm tremor at rest, which increased in amplitude during action. In one of the studied patients, clinically superimposed myoclonus was observed. The duration of the myoclonus was in the range of 250 msec at about 3 Hz, which is more consistent with subcortical myoclonus. In summary, ANO3 causes a varied phenotype of young-onset or adult-onset craniocervical dystonia with tremor and/or myoclonic jerks. Patients with familial cervical dystonia who also have myoclonus-dystonia as well as patients with prominent tremor and mild dystonia should be tested for ANO3 mutations. © 2014 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society

Classical galactosemia is an autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism leading to toxic accumulation of galactose and derived metabolites. It presents with acute systemic complications in the newborn. Galactose restriction resolves these symptoms, but long-term complications, such as premature ovarian failure and neurological problems including motor dysfunction, may occur despite adequate treatment. The objective of the current study was to determine the frequency and phenotype of motor problems in adult patients with classical galactosemia. In this cross-sectional study, adult patients with a biochemically confirmed diagnosis of galactosemia attending our clinic were assessed with an interview and neurological examination and their notes retrospectively reviewed. Patients were classified according to the presence/absence of motor dysfunction on examination. Patients with motor dysfunction were further categorized according to the presence/absence of reported motor symptoms. Forty-seven patients were included. Thirty-one patients showed evidence of motor dysfunction including: tremor (23 patients), dystonia (23 patients), cerebellar signs (6 patients), and pyramidal signs (4 patients). Tremor and dystonia were often combined (16 patients). Thirteen patients reported motor symptoms, with 8 describing progressive worsening. Symptomatic treatment was effective in 4 of 5 patients. Nonmotor neurological features (cognitive, psychiatric, and speech disorders) and premature ovarian failure were more frequent in patients with motor dysfunction. Motor dysfunction is a common complication of classical galactosemia, with tremor and dystonia the most frequent findings. Up to one third of patients report motor symptoms and may benefit from appropriate treatment. Progressive worsening is not uncommon and may suggest ongoing brain damage in a subset of patients.

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It has been reported that patients who have Parkinson's disease have a high prevalence of somatisation (functional neurological symptoms) compared with patients who have other neurodegenerative conditions. Numerous explanations have been advanced for this phenomenon. Here, with illustrative cases, we discuss this topic, including its clinical importance, and suggest a link between the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease and the proposed propensity to develop functional symptoms.