This paper uses a linguistic tree, describing the genealogical relationship between all 6,912 world languages, to compute measures of diversity at different levels of linguistic aggregation.By doing so, we let the data inform us on which linguistic cleavages are most relevant for a range of political economy outcomes, rather than making ad hoc choices. We find that deep cleavages, originating thousands of years ago, lead to better predictors of civil conflict and redistribution.The opposite pattern emerges when it comes to the impact of linguistic diversity on growth and public goods provision, where finer distinctions between languages matter. JEL classification: H1, N4, O4, O5

This paper investigates the effect of linguistic diversity on redistribution in a broad crosssection of countries. We use the notion of "linguistic distances" and show that the commonly used fractionalization index, which ignores linguistic distances, yields insignificant results. However, once distances between languages are accounted for, linguistic diversity has both a statistically and economically significant effect on redistribution. With an average level of redistribution of 9.5% of GDP in our data set, an increase by one standard deviation in the degree of diversity lowers redistribution by approximately one percentage point. We also demonstrate that other measures, such as polarization and peripheral heterogeneity, provide similar results when linguistic distances are incorporated. (JEL: D6, D74, H5, Z10)

This paper studies evidence from Thomson Scientific about the citation process of 3.7 million articles published in the period 1998-2002 in 219 Web of Science categories, or sub-fields. Reference and citation distributions have very different characteristics across sub-fields. However, when analyzed with the Characteristic Scores and Scales technique, which is replication and scale invariant, the shape of these distributions over three broad categories of articles appears strikingly similar. Reference distributions are mildly skewed, but citation distributions with a five-year citation window are highly skewed: the mean is twenty points above the median, while 9-10% of all articles in the upper tail account for about 44% of all citations. The aggregation of sub-fields into disciplines and fields according to several aggregation schemes preserve this feature of citation distributions. It should be noted that when we look into subsets of articles within the lower and upper tails of citation distributions the universality partially breaks down. On the other hand, for 140 of the 219 sub-fields the existence of a power law cannot be rejected. However, contrary to what is generally believed, at the sub-field level the scaling parameter is above 3.5 most of the time, and power laws are relatively small: on average, they represent 2% of all articles and account for 13.5% of all citations. The results of the aggregation into disciplines and fields reveal that power law algebra is a subtle phenomenon.

We investigate the relationship between ethnicity and culture, de…ned as a vector of traits re ‡ecting norms, attitudes and preferences. Using surveys of cultural attitudes and values, we …nd that ethnic identity is a signi…cant predictor of cultural attitudes, yet that cultural diversity is uncorrelated with ethnic diversity. The reason is that the degree of cultural heterogeneity between ethnic groups is small relative to total cultural heterogeneity. We propose new measures of the degree of overlap between culture and ethnicity, 2 and F ST , that stem directly from a simple model of social antagonism. We study the cross-country correlates of cultural diversity and of the overlap between culture and ethnicity. Finally, we …nd that our proposed overlap measures are strong and robust predictors of civil con ‡ict, that cultural diversity tends to reduce the incidence of con ‡ict, and that ethnic fractionalization is not signi…cantly related to con ‡ict.Thus, civil con ‡ict is more likely when culture and ethnicity reinforce each other.

This paper quantitatively analyzes the stability and breakup of nations. The tradeoff between increasing returns in the provision of public goods and the costs of greater cultural heterogeneity mediates agents' preferences over different geographical configurations, thus determining the likelihood of secessions and unions. After calibrating the model to Europe, we identify the regions prone to secession and the countries most likely to merge. We then estimate the implied monetary gains from EU membership. As a test of the theory, we show that the model can account for the breakup of Yugoslavia and the dynamics of its disintegration. We find that economic differences between the Yugoslav republics determined the order of disintegration, but cultural differences, though small, were key to the country's instability. The paper also provides empirical support for the use of genetic distances as a proxy for cultural heterogeneity.

Are ethnic cleavages associated with deep differences in culture between groups? Many people think so. In poor countries, often characterized by a high level of ethnic diversity, concerns arise that groups with heterogeneous values, norms, and attitudes-the broad set of traits that we will refer to as "culture"-may be unable to agree on policies, the provision of public goods, and the broader goals of society. In rich countries, debates rage over multiculturalism and whether population movements brought about by globalization and modernity will result in cultural divisions and the breakdown of social consensus. Underlying these debates is an assumption that people agree within groups and disagree across groups, so that cultural heterogeneity and ethnic heterogeneity are two sides of the same coin. Yet there is little quantitative research on the relationship between ethnicity and culture.In this paper we conduct a systematic investigation of the links between culture and ethnicity. In doing so, we aim to answer the following questions: Is an individual's ethnolinguistic identity a predictor of his norms, values, and preferences? Are ethnolinguistic heterogeneity and cultural heterogeneity highly correlated? What is the degree of overlap between ethnicity and culture? Finally, is the relationship

a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f oThis paper uses a linguistic tree, describing the genealogical relationship between all 6912 world languages, to compute measures of diversity at different levels of linguistic aggregation. By doing so, we let the data inform us on which linguistic cleavages are most relevant for a range of political economy outcomes, rather than making ad hoc choices. We find that deep cleavages, originating thousands of years ago, lead to better predictors of civil conflict and redistribution. The opposite pattern emerges when it comes to the impact of linguistic diversity on growth and public goods provision, where finer distinctions between languages matter.

This paper proposes a new method to measure ethnolinguistic diversity and offers new results linking such diversity with a range of political economy outcomes --civil conflict, redistribution, economic growth and the provision of public goods. We use linguistic trees, describing the genealogical relationship between the entire set of 6,912 world languages, to compute measures of fractionalization and polarization at different levels of linguistic aggregation. By doing so, we let the data inform us on which linguistic cleavages are most relevant, rather than making ad hoc choices of linguistic classifications. We find drastically different effects of linguistic diversity at different levels of aggregation: deep cleavages, originating thousands of years ago, lead to measures of diversity that are better predictors of civil conflict and redistribution than those that account for more recent and superficial divisions. The opposite pattern holds when it comes to the impact of linguistic diversity on growth and public goods provision, where finer distinctions between languages matter.