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This article presents a comparative analysis of the determinants of early school leaving (ESL) at the country level. We decompose ESL rates into two components: a ‘primary’ rate reflecting unqualified school leaving from initial education, and a second component accounting for early school leavers who participate in training programmes. Both may be influenced by structural and policy determinants. We examine how the ESL rate is affected by macro‐economic and social context variables such as GDP/capita, growth, poverty, and youth unemployment, as well as system characteristics of the education system (such as legal school leaving age, grade retention, early tracking, and size of vocational education) and the labour market and social protection systems (minimum wages, unemployment insurance).

Nowadays, participation in adult education is considered as in individual responsibility. However, participation is the result of a complex bounded agency between individuals, educational institutions and regulating governments (Boeren et al 2010). This paper explores the motivation of 12,000 European adult learners in formal adult education in 12 European countries. Analyses show consistent patterns comparable to welfare state typologies (Esping-Andersen 1990). Further exploration makes clear that motivation to participate in an adult education course can be interpreted in relation with labour market, education and social policy in the country of participation.

Earlier research showed that obtaining a vocational instead of a general qualification has contrasting effects on employment and earnings over the life course. Relying on two international datasets (ESJS and PIAAC) and focussing on upper-secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary qualifications, we find similar contrasting effects in terms of educational and skill mismatches. While vocationally educated individuals are less likely to face mismatches at the start of their careers, this advantage gradually fades out over time. This pattern is not only found for overall mismatches, but also for mismatches in terms of several more detailed types of skills. We also find more favourable effects in terms of avoided mismatches for vocational programmes that combine a specific focus with workplace learning, while programmes that combine a less-specific focus with workplace learning seem to be less effective.