Enzyme-based chemical transformations typically proceed with high selectivity under mild conditions, and are becoming increasingly important in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) constitute a large family of enzymes of particular interest in this regard. Their biological functions, such as detoxification of xenobiotics and steroidogenesis, are based on the ability to catalyse the insertion of oxygen into a wide variety of compounds. Such a catalytic transformation might find technological applications in areas ranging from gene therapy and environmental remediation to the selective synthesis of pharmaceuticals and chemicals. But relatively low turnover rates (particularly towards non-natural substrates), low stability and the need for electron-donating cofactors prohibit the practical use of P450s as isolated enzymes. Here we report the directed evolution of the P450 from Pseudomonas putida to create mutants that hydroxylate naphthalene in the absence of cofactors through the 'peroxide shunt' pathway with more than 20-fold higher activity than the native enzyme. We are able to screen efficiently for improved mutants by coexpressing them with horseradish peroxidase, which converts the products of the P450 reaction into fluorescent compounds amenable to digital imaging screening. This system should allow us to select and develop mono- and di-oxygenases into practically useful biocatalysts for the hydroxylation of a wide range of aromatic compounds.

The tremendous therapeutic potential of peptides has not yet been realized, mainly due to their short in vivo half-life. While conjugation to macromolecules has been a mainstay approach for enhancing the half-life of proteins, the steric hindrance of macromolecules often harms the binding of peptides to target receptors, compromising the in vivo efficacy. Here we report a new strategy for enhancing the in vivo half-life of peptides without compromising their potency. Our approach involves endowing peptides with a small-molecule that binds reversibly to the serum protein, transthyretin. Although there are few reversible albumin-binding molecules, we are unaware of designed small molecules that bind reversibly to other serum proteins and are used for half-life extension in vivo. We show here that our strategy was indeed effective in enhancing the half-life of an agonist for GnRH receptor while maintaining its binding affinity, which was translated into superior in vivo efficacy.

Transthyretin (TTR) amyloid cardiomyopathy (ATTR-CM) is a fatal disease with no available disease-modifying therapies. While pathogenic TTR mutations (TTRm) destabilize TTR tetramers, the T119M variant stabilizes TTRm and prevents disease. A comparison of potency for leading TTR stabilizers in clinic and structural features important for effective TTR stabilization is lacking. Here, we found that molecular interactions reflected in better binding enthalpy may be critical for development of TTR stabilizers with improved potency and selectivity. Our studies provide mechanistic insights into the unique binding mode of the TTR stabilizer, AG10, which could be attributed to mimicking the stabilizing T119M variant. Because of the lack of animal models for ATTR-CM, we developed an in vivo system in dogs which proved appropriate for assessing the pharmacokinetics-pharmacodynamics profile of TTR stabilizers. In addition to stabilizing TTR, we hypothesize that optimizing the binding enthalpy could have implications for designing therapeutic agents for other amyloid diseases.

The ability to engineer proteins by directed evolution requires functional expression of the target polypeptide in a recombinant host suitable for construction and screening libraries of enzyme variants. Bacteria and yeast are preferred, but eukaryotic proteins often fail to express in active form in these cells. We have attempted to resolve this problem by identifying mutations in the target gene that facilitate its functional expression in a given recombinant host. Here we examined expression of HRP in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Through three rounds of directed evolution by random point mutagenesis and screening, we obtained a 40-fold increase in total HRP activity in the S.cerevisiae culture supernatant compared with wild-type, as measured on ABTS ¿2, 2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (260 units/l/OD(600)). Genes from wild-type and two high-activity clones were expressed in Pichia pastoris, where the total ABTS activity reached 600 units/l/OD(600) in shake flasks. The mutants show up to 5.4-fold higher specific activity towards ABTS and 2.3-fold higher specific activity towards guaiacol.

The present investigation tested the hypothesis that nitric oxide (NO) potentiates ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channels by protein kinase G (PKG)-dependent phosphorylation in rabbit ventricular myocytes with the use of patch-clamp techniques. Sodium nitroprusside (SNP; 1 mM) potentiated K(ATP) channel activity in cell-attached patches but failed to enhance the channel activity in either inside-out or outside-out patches. The 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)-cGMP Rp isomer (Rp-CPT-cGMP, 100 microM) suppressed the potentiating effect of SNP. 8-(4-Chlorophenylthio)-cGMP (8-pCPT-cGMP, 100 microM) increased K(ATP) channel activity in cell-attached patches. PKG (5 U/microl) added together with ATP and cGMP (100 microM each) directly to the intracellular surface increased the channel activity. Activation of K(ATP) channels was abolished by the replacement of ATP with ATPgammaS. Rp-pCPT-cGMP (100 microM) inhibited the effect of PKG. The heat-inactivated PKG had little effect on the K(ATP) channels. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A, 1 U/ml) reversed the PKG-mediated K(ATP) channel activation. With the use of 5 nM okadaic acid (a PP2A inhibitor), PP2A had no effect on the channel activity. These results suggest that the NO-cGMP-PKG pathway contributes to phosphorylation of K(ATP) channels in rabbit ventricular myocytes.

The potential energy surface (PES) of C4H4 was explored using quantum chemical methods (DFT, MP2, MP4, GVB-MP2, CCSD(T), G2M, CBSQ/APNO) and 43 different structures located at global and local minima were identified. The majority of these structures correspond to carbenes, a minority to closed shell systems and biradicals (carbyne structures were not investigated). Whereas the chemistry of the closed shell systems such as vinylacetylene (1), butatriene (2), methylenecyclopropene (3), cyclobutadiene (5) or tetrahedrane (15) is well known, the carbenes represent unusual structural entities. 2-Methyl-cycloprop-2-en-1-ylidene (4) (DeltaDeltaH(298) = 36.2 kcal mol(-1) relative to 1) in its sigma2pi0 electron configuration at the carbene C of the 1A ground state is of comparable stability to cyclobutadiene (5) (DeltaDeltaH(298) = 33.4 kcal mol(-1); exp. value: 32.1 kcal mol(-1) as a result of aromatic 2pi-delocalization; carbene 3-vinylidenecyclopropene (13) (DeltaDeltaH(298) = 53.9 kcal mol(-1) does not possess C(2v) symmetry but has the vinylidene group bent toward the three-membered ring (C(s)-symmetry) thus representing a frozen path point of the chelotropic addition of :C=C: to ethene. Allenyl carbene (14) has a triplet ground state and two low lying excited singlet states of closed shell (2.5 kcal mol(-1) higher) and open shell character (14.1 kcal mol(-1)). Carbene 14 is a crossing point on the C4H4 PES connecting closed-shell systems with each other. Because of the stability of 1, its rearrangement reactions are all connected with high activation enthalpies requiring 66 up to 92 kcal mol(-1) so that they energetically overlap with the activation enthalpies typical of decomposition reactions (from 90 kcal mol(-1) upward). The possible rearrangement reactions of 1 are investigated with a view to their relevance for the chemical behavior of the molecule under the conditions of Titan's atmosphere.

We used proteomics to detect regional differences in protein expression levels from mitochondrial fractions of control, ischemia-reperfusion (IR), and ischemic preconditioned (IPC) rabbit hearts. Using 2-DE, we identified 25 mitochondrial proteins that were differentially expressed in the IR heart compared with the control and IPC hearts. For three of the spots, the expression patterns were confirmed by Western blotting analysis. These proteins included 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, prohibitin, 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, adenosine triphosphate synthases, the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) oxidoreductase, translation elongation factor, actin alpha, malate dehydrogenase, NADH dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase and the voltage-dependent anion channel. Interestingly, most of these proteins are associated with the mitochondrial respiratory chain and energy metabolism. The successful use of multiple techniques, including 2-DE, MALDI-TOF-MS and Western blotting analysis demonstrates that proteomic analysis provides appropriate means for identifying cardiac markers for detection of ischemia-induced cardiac injury.

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