Several different phenotypes of the native Pramenka sheep have been developed in the Balkan region for different environmental and socio-cultural conditions. Animals from seven West Balkan Pramenka sheep types were analysed for 15 microsatellite markers and for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the results were used to assess genetic variation within and among the types and to infer the genetic population structure of the Pramenka sheep. Mean expected heterozygosity and allelic richness over the microsatellite loci and sheep types were 0.78 and 7.9, respectively. A Bayesian statistical method for estimating hidden genetic structure suggested that a core of the largest panmictic population was formed by Serbian, Kosovan, Bosnian, Montenegrin and Albanian types, while Croatian and Macedonian types comprised two other main populations, respectively. Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed two mtDNA haplogroups in the Pramenka sheep, B and A, with a frequency of 93.7% and 6.3%, respectively. A total of 60 mtDNA haplotypes were found in 64 animals sequenced, and the mean nucleotide and haplotypic diversities over the types were 0.013 and 0.945, respectively. Molecular analysis suggests that the West Balkan Pramenka sheep types have their origins in two distinct maternal lineages of domestic sheep and different Pramenka phenotypes tend to form few panmictic populations. The Pramenka sheep represents a valuable resource of genetic diversity in sheep.

We estimated neutral diversity of 21 European cattle breeds with 105 microsatellites. Nine of them resembled unselected Balkan Buša strains with diffuse breeding barriers and the 12 others were strongly differentiated, isolated breeds. Because of the impact of neutral genetic diversity on long-term population adaptive capacity, we discuss the long-term outcome of different conservation priorities in a subdivided metapopulation of the investigated cattle breeds. The optimal contribution to a pool of total genetic diversity allocated more than 95% of long-term relevant neutral diversity to virtually unselected strains of the Balkan Buša, while the maximization of total variance preferred inbred breeds. Current artificial selection methods, such as genomic selection sped up and a recovery of underestimated traits becomes quickly impossible. We emphasize that currently neutral and even deleterious alleles might be required for future genotypes in sustainable and efficient livestock breeding and production systems of a 21st century. We provide cumulative evidences that long-term survival relies on genetic complexity and complexity relies on allelic diversity. Our results suggest that virtually unselected, nonuniform strains harbor a crucial proportion of neutral diversity and should be conserved with high global priority. As one example, we suggest a cooperative maintenance of the nondifferentiated, highly fragmented, and fast vanishing metapopulation of Balkan Buša.

Preservation of genetic diversity is one of the most pressing challenges in the planetary boundaries concept. Within this context, we focused on genetic diversity in a native, unselected and highly admixed domesticated metapopulation. A set of 1,828 individuals from 60 different cattle breeds was analysed using a medium density SNP chip. Among these breeds, 14 Buša strains formed a metapopulation represented by 350 individuals, while the remaining 46 breeds represented the global cattle population. Genetic analyses showed that the scarcely selected and less differentiated Buša metapopulation contributed a substantial proportion (52.6%) of the neutral allelic diversity to this global taurine population. Consequently, there is an urgent need for synchronized maintenance of this highly fragmented domestic metapopulation, which is distributed over several countries without sophisticated infrastructure and highly endangered by continuous replacement crossing as part of the global genetic homogenization process. This study collected and evaluated samples, data and genomewide information and developed genome-assisted cross-border conservation concepts. To detect and maintain genetic integrity of the metapopulation strains, we designed and applied a composite test that combines six metrics based on additive genetic relationships, a nearest neighbour graph and the distribution of semiprivate alleles. Each metric provides distinct information components about past admixture events and offers an objective and powerful tool for the detection of admixed outliers. The here developed conservation methods and presented experiences could easily be adapted to comparable conservation programmes of domesticated or other metapopulations bred and kept in captivity or under some other sort of human control.

The contribution of domestic cattle in human societies is enormous, making cattle, along with other essential benefits, the economically most important domestic animal in the world today. To expand existing knowledge on cattle domestication and mitogenome diversity, we performed a comprehensive complete mitogenome analysis of the species (802 sequences, 114 breeds). A large sample was collected in South‐east Europe, an important agricultural gateway to Europe during Neolithization and a region rich in cattle biodiversity. We found 1725 polymorphic sites (810 singletons, 853 parsimony‐informative sites and 57 indels), 701 unique haplotypes, a haplotype diversity of 0.9995 and a nucleotide diversity of 0.0015. In addition to the dominant T 3 and several rare haplogroups (Q, T 5 , T 4 , T 2 and T 1 ), we have identified maternal line in Austrian Murbodner cattle that possess surviving aurochs’ mitochondria haplotype P 1 that diverged prior to the Neolithization process. This is convincing evidence for rare female‐mediated adaptive introgression of wild aurochs into domesticated cattle in Europe. We revalidated the existing haplogroup classification and provided Bayesian phylogenetic inference with a more precise estimated divergence time than previously available. Occasionally, classification based on partial mitogenomes was not reliable; for example, some individuals with haplogroups P and T 5 were not recognized based on D‐loop information. Bayesian skyline plot estimates (median) show that the earliest population growth began before domestication in cattle with haplogroup T 2 , followed by Q (~10.0–9.5 kyBP), whereas cattle with T 3 (~7.5 kyBP) and T 1 (~3.0–2.5 kyBP) expanded later. Overall, our results support the existence of interactions between aurochs and cattle during domestication and dispersal of cattle in the past, contribute to the conservation of maternal cattle diversity and enable functional analyses of the surviving aurochs P 1 mitogenome.

The aim of this study was to assess the concentration of Se and other minerals in sheep and the supplied feed. Four macrominerals (Ca, P, Mg, and S), 7 microminerals (Se, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Co, and Mo), and 2 toxic minerals (Cd and Pb) were analyzed in 69 feed and 292 sheep blood samples from 30 farms in different regions of Kosovo. The samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and mineral concentrations in whole blood were measured to assess their status in animals. Concentrations of the different minerals in feed were found in the following ranges: 1.9 to 9.5 g Ca/kg DM, 0.8 to 3.2 g P/kg DM, 0.8 to 3.2 g Mg/kg DM, 1.0 to 2.8 g S/kg DM, 6 to 82 µg Se/kg DM, 33 to 970 mg Fe/kg DM, 15 to 42 mg Zn/ kg DM, 2.6 to 7.5 mg Cu/kg DM, 26 to 250 mg Mn/kg DM, 0.04 to 0.88 mg Co/kg DM, 0.05 to 0.86 mg Mo/ kg DM, 0.07 to 2.02 mg Pb/kg DM, and 0.02 to 0.19 mg Cd/kg DM. Concentrations of the microminerals analyzed in whole blood were found in the following ranges: 15 to 360 µg Se/L, 190 to 500 mg Fe/L, 1.4 to 3.8 mg Zn/L, 0.3 to 2.6 mg Cu/L, 6 to 243 µg Mn/L, 0.1 to 19.6 µg Co/L, and 1.8 to 66.0 µg Pb/L. Among all minerals, the largest deficiency was found for Se both in feed and sheep blood, with 82% of feed samples and 83% blood samples being inadequate, and its supplementation is necessary. Selenium-supplemented sheep had significantly higher Se concentration in blood than non-supplemented sheep (P < 0.01). In addition, other macro- and microminerals in feed such as P, S, Cu, and Co were at inadequate concentrations at some of the farms, and supplementation may also be needed for these minerals.

In Kosovo, a new regulation on quality standards and grade of fresh milk is valid since January 1, 2007. The regulation was based on the respective EU-regulation and has an ambitious time frame with a transition period of only three years. In order to estimate the impact of this new regulation, a survey on the quality of raw milk delivered to the Kosovar dairies was carried out from January to May 2007. The aim was to get a reliable picture of the current raw milk quality in the dairy channel in Kosovo, to discuss the findings with the relevant actors of the dairy sector and the government, and to draw the necessary conclusions. In total 364 milk samples, from the leading 14 dairies constitute the basis for the statistical analyses of this study. The four most important parameters of raw milk quality: TBC, SCC, FP and AB were analyzed. Regarding TBC, the results show that around 20% of samples meet the Kosovo standard 2008 (< 500,000 CFU/ml) and only around 10% meet the (higher) Kosovo standard 2009 (<100,000 CFU/ml) while for SCC, around 80% of the samples meet the Kosovo standard 2008 (<600,000 cells/ml) and 66% meet the (higher) Kosovo standard 2009 (<400,000 cells/ml). Therefore at the moment the problem of high microbiological content is more prominent than the one of high somatic cell count. Beside this, in one third of the samples, the freezing point is at least questionable. In 2.2% of the samples antibiotics could be proven—a major risk for public health. Raw milk quality in Kosovo still is very poor and must be improved in order the dairy processors be able to produce qualitatively good end products and therefore can compete with imported dairy products or export their products

Introduction: Milk is considered to be a healthy, nutritious food product. Microbiological quality is an important aspect in evaluating the quality of milk. Methodology: A total of 603 bulk tank milk samples from 221 farms distributed across ten different regions were collected for milk quality assessment. Quality was judged by total viable count, and the prevalence of two foodborne pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus) by using selective media and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The presence of virulence genes was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific primers. Results: Milk from only 7% (15/221) of farms were found to comply with the European Union standard. Interestingly, the microbiological quality of milk from the larger herd size farms (more than 10 cows) was better than in smaller herds. L. monocytogenes was found in 2.7% (6/221) of farms, and all the examined L. monocytogenes isolates were positive with respect to the virulence genes prfA, actA, and hlyA. S. aureus was found in 39.8% (88/221) of the farms. In total, 30.7% (27/88) of the staphylococci were positive for enterotoxin production. The enterotoxins identified were toxin B (40.7%), toxin D (33.4%), toxin C (18.5%), and toxin A (7.4%). Conclusions: The total number of bacteria in milk was very high. The presence of two foodborne pathogens in raw milk represents a great health risk to consumers. To improve the microbial quality of milk in Kosovo, important measures to improve hygiene, including better information, guidance, and control, are needed.

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