Acoustic dimensions important in a person's native language have been shown to influence second language perception. Here we show that such effects can extend beyond language. In two experiments, native speakers of Mandarin (N=45)-where pitch is a crucial cue to word identity-placed more importance on pitch and less importance on other dimensions compared to native speakers of non-tonal languages English (N=46) and Spanish (N=27), during the perception of both second language speech and musical beats. In a third experiment, we further show that Mandarin speakers are better able to attend to pitch and ignore irrelevant variation in other dimensions compared to English and Spanish speakers, and even struggle to ignore pitch when asked to attend to other dimensions. Thus, an individual's idiosyncratic perceptual system reflects a complex mixture of congenital predispositions and biases instilled by extensive experience in directing attention to important dimensions in their native language.
The current study examines the role of cognitive and perceptual individual differences (i.e., aptitude) in second language (L2) pronunciation learning, when L2 learners' varied experience background is controlled for. A total of 48 Chinese learners of English in the UK were assessed for their sensitivity to segmental and suprasegmental aspects of speech on explicit and implicit modes via behavioural (language/music aptitude tests) and neurophysiological (electroencephalography) measures. Subsequently, the participants' aptitude profiles were compared to the segmental and suprasegmental dimensions of their L2 pronunciation proficiency analyzed through rater judgements and acoustic measurements. According to the results, the participants' segmental attainment was associated not only with explicit aptitude (phonemic coding), but also with implicit aptitude (enhanced neural encoding of spectral peaks). Whereas the participants' suprasegmental attainment was linked to explicit aptitude (rhythmic imagery) to some degree, it was primarily influenced by the quality and quantity of their most recent L2 learning experience. COGNITIVE CORRELATES OF LSPEECH LEARNINGUnderstanding the process and product of second language acquisition (SLA) is complex, as it can be explained not only by factors related to experience (i.e., the extent to which second language [L2] learners practice the target language), but also by those related to aptitude (i.e., the cognitive and perceptual factors which determine the extent to which L2 learners can make the most of relevant L2 experience). Whereas the previous literature has examined aptitude in reference to L2 lexicogrammar development (for reviews, see Li, 2016;Skehan, 2016), surprisingly little is known about the role of aptitude in L2 pronunciation learning. The present study aims to fill this gap by proposing a new framework of cognitive abilities relevant to the degree of success after years of explicit and implicit pronunciation learning under various L2 learning conditions. To achieve this main objective, we assessed the segmental and suprasegmental sensitivity of 48 Chinese learners of English in the UK by using a range of behavioural (language and music aptitude tests) and neurophysiological (electroencephalography) measures. Subsequently, we explored which pronunciation learning aptitude variables were linked to the segmental and suprasegmental aspects of the learners' L2 pronunciation performance, controlling for their L2 learning backgrounds (i.e., their past and recent L2 use). Background Second Language Pronunciation DevelopmentSecond language pronunciation proficiency is a composite skill which comprises the capacity to (a) pronounce new consonantal and vocalic sounds in a L2 without deleting or substituting them for L1 counterparts (segmental accuracy); (b) use adequate prosody at the word (correct assignment of word stress) and sentence (appropriate use of intonation for declarative and interrogative intensions) levels; and (c) deliver speech at an optimal tempo (...
The current study longitudinally examined the influence of aptitude on second language (L2) pronunciation development when 40 firstyear Japanese university students engaged in practice activities inside and outside English-as-a-Foreign-Language classrooms over one academic year. Spontaneous speech samples were elicited at the beginning, middle and end points of the project, analyzed for global, segmental, syllabic, prosodic and temporal aspects of L2 pronunciation, and linked to their aptitude and experience profiles. Results indicated that the participants generally enhanced the global comprehensibility of their speech (via reducing vowel insertion errors in complex syllables) as a function of increased classroom experience during their first semester, and explicit learning aptitude (associative memory, phonemic coding) appeared to help certain learners further enhance their pronunciation proficiency through the development of fluency and prosody. In the second semester, incidental learning ability (sound sequence recognition) was shown to be a significant predictor of the extent to which certain learners continued to improve and ultimately attain advanced-level L2 comprehensibility, largely thanks to improved segmental accuracy.Adult second language acquisition (SLA) is a multifaceted phenomenon whose process and product are greatly affected not only by factors related to experience (e.g., how second language [L2] learners have practiced the target language), but also by those which are learner-internal (e.g., to what extent they are cognitively and socially adept at L2 pronunciation learning). Adopting a longitudinal approach (i.e., where learners engaged in practice activities inside and outside English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) classrooms over one academic year), the current study examined how 40 college-level Japanese students with various aptitude scores (in terms of sound sequence recognition, phonemic coding, and associative memory) could improve the global 2 Kazuya Saito, Yui Suzukida and Hui Sun (comprehensibility), segmental (consonant/vowel errors), syllabic (schwa vowel insertion), prosodic (wrong/missing stress) and temporal (breakdown, speed, fluency) dimensions of their L2 pronunciation. BACKGROUND
In this study, we propose a hypothesis that domain-general auditory processing, a perceptual–cognitive anchor of first language (L1) acquisition, can serve as an important deciding factor for successful postpubertal second language (L2) pronunciation learning. To examine this hypothesis, samples of spontaneous speech were elicited from a total of 30 L1 Chinese L2 English learners at two points (outset and endpoint) during an 8-month study-abroad period in the United Kingdom. The participants were tested on three different components of auditory processing ability (formant, pitch, and duration discrimination) using behavioral instruments. The auditory processing scores were then linked to the segmental, prosodic, and fluency dimensions of their L2 pronunciation proficiency development throughout the project. Overall, most learners’ speech became smoother, faster, and more fluent (fewer pauses, faster articulation rate, and more optimal perceived tempo). Certain learners with high-level auditory processing ability (more precise formant discrimination) appeared to further attain more correct pronunciation of individual sounds and words (greater segmental and word stress accuracy), leading to more advanced L2 phonological skills (fluent and accurate). The findings suggest that auditory processing abilities can be a root of language learning throughout the life span and may apply to the initial- to midphase of naturalistic L2 pronunciation learning in adulthood.
In this study, we propose a hypothesis that domain-general auditory processing, a perceptual anchor of L1 acquisition, can serve as the foundation of successful post-pubertal L2 learning. This hypothesis was tested with 139 post-pubertal L2 immersion learners by linking individual differences in auditory discrimination across multiple acoustic dimensions to the segmental, prosodic, lexical, and morphosyntactic dimensions of L2 proficiency. Overall, auditory processing was a primary determinant of a range of participants’ proficiency scores, even after biographical factors (experience, age) were controlled for. The link between audition and proficiency was especially clear for L2 learners who had passed beyond the initial phase of immersion (length of residence > 1 year). The findings suggest that greater auditory processing skill benefits post-pubertal L2 learners immersed in naturalistic settings for a sufficient period of time by allowing them to better utilize received input, which results in greater language gains and leads to more advanced L2 proficiency in the long run (similar to L1 acquisition).
Following the trends established in psychology and emerging in L2 research, we explain our support for an Open Science approach in this paper (i.e., developing, analyzing and sharing datasets) as a way to answer controversial and complex questions in applied linguistics. We illustrate this with a focus on a frequently debated question, what underlies individual differences in the dynamic system of post-pubertal L2 speech learning? We provide a detailed description of our dataset which consists of spontaneous speech samples, elicited from 110 late L2 speakers in the UK with diverse linguistic, experiential and sociopsychological backgrounds, rated by ten L1 English listeners for comprehensibility and nativelikeness. We explain how we examined the source of individual differences by linking different levels of L2 speech performance to a range of learner-extrinsic and intrinsic variables related to first language backgrounds, age, experience, motivation, awareness, and attitudes using a series of factor and Bayesian mixed-effects ordinal regression analyses. We conclude with a range of suggestions for the fields of applied linguistics and SLA, including the use of Bayesian methods in analyzing multivariate, multifactorial data of this kind, and advocating for publicly available datasets. In keeping with recommendations for increasing openness of the field, we invite readers to rethink and redo our analyses and interpretations from multiple angles by making our dataset and coding publicly available as part of our 40th anniversary ARAL article.
Precise auditory perception at a subcortical level (neural representation and encoding of sound) has been suggested as a form of implicit L2 aptitude in naturalistic settings. Emerging evidence suggests that such implicit aptitude explains some variance in L2 speech perception and production among adult learners with different first language backgrounds and immersion experience. By examining 46 Chinese learners of English, the current study longitudinally investigated the extent to which explicit and implicit auditory processing ability could predict L2 segmental and prosody acquisition over a 5-month early immersion. According to the results, participants’ L2 gains were associated with more explicit and integrative auditory processing ability (remembering and reproducing music sequences), while the role of implicit, preconscious perception appeared to be negligible at the initial stage of postpubertal L2 speech learning.
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