MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small (∼22 nucleotides) non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression by interacting with target mRNAs. A majority of miRNAs is located within intronic or exonic regions of protein-coding genes (host genes), and increasing evidence suggests a functional relationship between these miRNAs and their host genes. Here, we introduce miRIAD, a web-service to facilitate the analysis of genomic and structural features of intragenic miRNAs and their host genes for five species (human, rhesus monkey, mouse, chicken and opossum). miRIAD contains the genomic classification of all miRNAs (inter- and intragenic), as well as classification of all protein-coding genes into host or non-host genes (depending on whether they contain an intragenic miRNA or not). We collected and processed public data from several sources to provide a clear visualization of relevant knowledge related to intragenic miRNAs, such as host gene function, genomic context, names of and references to intragenic miRNAs, miRNA binding sites, clusters of intragenic miRNAs, miRNA and host gene expression across different tissues and expression correlation for intragenic miRNAs and their host genes. Protein–protein interaction data are also presented for functional network analysis of host genes. In summary, miRIAD was designed to help the research community to explore, in a user-friendly environment, intragenic miRNAs, their host genes and functional annotations with minimal effort, facilitating hypothesis generation and in-silico validations.Database URL: http://www.miriad-database.org

BackgroundKinins participate in the pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes by mechanisms which are not fully understood. Kinin B1 receptor knockout mice (B1 −/−) are leaner and exhibit improved insulin sensitivity.Methodology/Principal FindingsHere we show that kinin B1 receptors in adipocytes play a role in controlling whole body insulin action and glucose homeostasis. Adipocytes isolated from mouse white adipose tissue (WAT) constitutively express kinin B1 receptors. In these cells, treatment with the B1 receptor agonist des-Arg9-bradykinin improved insulin signaling, GLUT4 translocation, and glucose uptake. Adipocytes from B1 −/− mice showed reduced GLUT4 expression and impaired glucose uptake at both basal and insulin-stimulated states. To investigate the consequences of these phenomena to whole body metabolism, we generated mice where the expression of the kinin B1 receptor was limited to cells of the adipose tissue (aP2-B1/B1 −/−). Similarly to B1 −/− mice, aP2-B1/B1 −/− mice were leaner than wild type controls. However, exclusive expression of the kinin B1 receptor in adipose tissue completely rescued the improved systemic insulin sensitivity phenotype of B1 −/− mice. Adipose tissue gene expression analysis also revealed that genes involved in insulin signaling were significantly affected by the presence of the kinin B1 receptor in adipose tissue. In agreement, GLUT4 expression and glucose uptake were increased in fat tissue of aP2-B1/B1 −/− when compared to B1 −/− mice. When subjected to high fat diet, aP2-B1/B1 −/− mice gained more weight than B1 −/− littermates, becoming as obese as the wild types.Conclusions/SignificanceThus, kinin B1 receptor participates in the modulation of insulin action in adipocytes, contributing to systemic insulin sensitivity and predisposition to obesity.

Background and purpose: Activation of the proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) induces scratching behaviour in mice. Here, we have investigated the role of kinin B1 and B2 receptors in the pruritogenic response elicited by activators of PAR-2. Experimental approach: Scratching was induced by an intradermal (i.d.) injection of trypsin or the selective PAR-2 activating peptide SLIGRL-NH2 at the back of the mouse neck. The animals were observed for 40 min and their scratching response was quantified. Key results: I.d. injection of trypsin or SLIGRL-NH2 evoked a scratching behaviour, dependent on PAR-2 activation. Mice genetically deficient in kinin B1 or B2 receptors exhibited reduced scratching behaviour after i.d. injection of trypsin or SLIGRL-NH2. Treatment (i.p.) with the non-peptide B1 or B2 receptor antagonists SSR240612 and FR173657, respectively, prevented the scratching behaviour caused by trypsin or SLIGRL-NH2. Nonetheless, only treatment i.p. with the peptide B2 receptor antagonist, Hoe 140, but not the B1 receptor antagonist (DALBK), inhibited the pruritogenic response to trypsin. Hoe 140 was also effective against SLIGRL-NH2-induced scratching behaviour when injected by i.d. or intrathecal (i.t.) routes. Also, the response to SLIGRL-NH2 was inhibited by i.t. (but not by i.d.) treatment with DALBK. Conversely, neither Hoe 140 nor DALBK were able to inhibit SLIGRL-NH2-induced scratching behaviour when given intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.). Conclusions and implications:The present results demonstrated that kinins acting on both B1 and B2 receptors played a crucial role in controlling the pruriceptive signalling triggered by PAR-2 activation in mice.

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Abstract:A role for the kinin B1 receptor in energy-homeostatic processes was implicated in previous studies; notably, the studies where kinin B1 receptor knockout mice (B1 -/-) were shown to have impaired adiposity, impaired leptin and insulin production, lower feed efficiency, protection from liver steatosis and diet-induced obesity when fed a high fat diet (HFD). In particular, in a model where the B1 receptor is expressed exclusively in the adipose tissue, it rescues the plasma insulin concentration and the weight gain seen in wild type mice. Taking into consideration that leptin participates in the formation of hypothalamic nuclei, which modulate energy expenditure, and feeding behavior, we hypothesized that these brain regions could also be altered in B1 -/-mice. We observed for the first time a difference in the gene expression pattern of cocaine and amphetamine related transcript (CART) in the (lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) resulting from the deletion of the kinin B1 receptor gene. The correlation between CART expression in the LHA and the thwarting of diet-induced obesity corroborates independent correlations between CART and obesity. Furthermore, it seems to indicate that the mechanism underlying the ' lean ' phenotype of B1 -/-mice does not stem solely from changes in peripheral tissues but may also receive contributions from changes in the hypothalamic machinery involved in energy homeostasis processes.

Abstract:The notorious biotechnological advance of the last few decades has allowed the development of experimental methods for understanding molecular mechanisms of genes and new therapeutic approaches. Gene therapy is maturing into a viable, practical method with the potential to cure a variety of human illnesses. Some nucleic-acid-based drugs are now available for controlling the progression of genetic diseases by inhibiting gene expression or the activity of their gene products. New therapeutic strategies employ a wide range of molecular tools such as bacterial plasmids containing transgenic inserts, RNA interference and aptamers. A nucleic-acid based constitution confers a lower immunogenic potential and as result of the high stringency selection of large molecular variety, these drugs have high affi nity and selectivity for their targets. However, nucleic acids have poor biostability thus requiring chemical modifi cations and delivery systems to maintain their activity and ease their cellular internalization. This review discusses some of the mechanisms of action and the application of therapies based on nucleic acids such as aptamers and RNA interference as well as platforms for cellular uptake and intracellular delivery of therapeutic oligonucleotides and their trade-offs.