Due to limited interaction of migratory birds between Eurasia and America, two independent avian influenza virus (AIV) gene pools have evolved. There is evidence of low frequency reassortment between these regions, which has major implications in global AIV dynamics. Indeed, all currently circulating lineages of the PB1 and PA segments in North America are of Eurasian origin. Large-scale analyses of intercontinental reassortment have shown that viruses isolated from Charadriiformes (gulls, terns, and shorebirds) are the major contributor of these outsider events. To clarify the role of gulls in AIV dynamics, specifically in movement of genes between geographic regions, we have sequenced six gull AIV isolated in Alaska and analyzed these along with 142 other available gull virus sequences. Basic investigations of host species and the locations and times of isolation reveal biases in the available sequence information. Despite these biases, our analyses reveal a high frequency of geographic reassortment in gull viruses isolated in America. This intercontinental gene mixing is not found in the viruses isolated from gulls in Eurasia. This study demonstrates that gulls are important as vectors for geographically reassorted viruses, particularly in America, and that more surveillance effort should be placed on this group of birds.

Many new viruses have been discovered recently, thanks in part to the advent of next-generation sequencing technologies. Among the Parvoviridae, three novel members of the genus Amdoparvovirus have been described in the last 4 years, expanding this genus that had contained a single species since its discovery, Aleutian mink disease virus. The increasing number of molecular and epidemiological studies on these viruses around the world also highlights the growing interest in this genus. Some aspects of amdoparvoviruses have been well characterized, however, many other aspects still need to be elucidated and the most recent reviews on this topic are outdated. We provide here an up-to-date overview of what is known and what still needs to be investigated about these scientifically and clinically relevant animal viruses.

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) causes plasmacytosis, an immune complex-associated syndrome that affects wild and farmed mink. The virus can also infect other small mammals (e.g., ferrets, skunks, ermines, and raccoons), but the disease in these hosts has been studied less. In 2007, a mink plasmacytosis outbreak began on the Island of Newfoundland, and the virus has been endemic in farms since then. In this study, we evaluated the molecular epidemiology of AMDV in farmed and wild animals of Newfoundland since before the beginning of the outbreak and investigated the epidemic in a global context by studying AMDV worldwide, thereby examining its diffusion and phylogeography. Furthermore, AMDV evolution was examined in the context of intensive farming, where host population dynamics strongly influence viral evolution. Partial NS1 sequences and several complete genomes were obtained from Newfoundland viruses and analyzed along with numerous sequences from other locations worldwide that were either obtained as part of this study or from public databases. We observed very high viral diversity within Newfoundland and within single farms, where high rates of co-infection, recombinant viruses and polymorphisms were observed within single infected individuals. Worldwide, we documented a partial geographic distribution of strains, where viruses from different countries co-exist within clades but form country-specific subclades. Finally, we observed the occurrence of recombination and the predominance of negative selection pressure on AMDV proteins. A surprisingly low number of immunoepitopic sites were under diversifying pressure, possibly because AMDV gains no benefit by escaping the immune response as viral entry into target cells is mediated through interactions with antibodies, which therefore contribute to cell infection. In conclusion, the high prevalence of AMDV in farms facilitates the establishment of co-infections that can favor the occurrence of recombination and enhance viral diversity. Viruses are then exchanged between different farms and countries and can be introduced into the wild, with the rapidly evolving viruses producing many parallel lineages.

Angiostrongylus vasorum and Crenosoma vulpis infect the pulmonary arteries and airways, respectively, of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Both are widespread in Europe, but within North America, A. vasorum occurs only on the island of Newfoundland. During 2000–2002, 366 red fox carcasses were examined from six regions of Newfoundland for the purpose of determining the distribution of both parasites, effects on the condition of their host, and whether infection with one affects that of the other. Crenosoma vulpis occurred island-wide with a prevalence of 87% and mean (±SE) intensity of 230 ± 20.8. Young-of-the-year red foxes had more C. vulpis (260 ± 39.4) than yearlings (91 ± 31.2) or adults (78 ± 41.1) (χ2 = 25.72, df = 2, p < 0.001), and numbers of adult worm were weakly related to fecal output of first-stage larvae (r2 = 0.20, p < 0.001) but not to host sex or body-fat index. Angiostrongylus vasorum occurred only in southeast Newfoundland where prevalence was 56% and mean intensity was 72 ± 7.6. Its distribution may be limited by cold, as it was absent from areas with mean winter temperatures below –4 °C. Intensity of adult A. vasorum was not related to host age, sex, larval output, or measures of body condition. Although referred to as a heartworm, 88% of adult worms were actually found in the pulmonary arteries rather than in the right ventricle. Furthermore, there was no apparent association between infections with the two parasites (Gc[1] = 0.10) even though 40% of red foxes had dual infections.

Abstract. Fifty-six dogs from St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada, were evaluated for Angiostrongylus vasorum infection. Small numbers of nematodes were found within pulmonary arteries of 6 dogs. Larvae were identified in fecal samples in 2 of 6 dogs. All 6 dogs had multifocal granulomatous pneumonia and sometimes foci of chronic thrombosis, which varied from very mild to severe. One dog had extensive pulmonary lesions resulting in cor pulmonale. Right heart failure was characterized by right ventricular hypertrophy, hepatic congestion, ascites, and hydrothorax. Microscopically, in most cases, eggs, larvae, and sometimes intravascular adults, were present within lung tissue sections. Small foci of granulomatous inflammation with and without larvae were present in kidney and brain in 4 dogs. An additional dog, diagnosed antemortem with angiostrongylosis via fecal examination, was also examined. Pathological findings consisted of severe pyogranulomatous interstitial pneumonia with myriad eggs, larvae, and numerous intravascular pulmonary adult nematodes with extensive arterial thrombosis. Five hundred and seventy-two adult worms were removed from pulmonary arteries. Foci of granulomatous inflammation, often associated with larvae and/or eggs, were present in tracheobronchial lymph nodes, adrenal gland, brain, and kidneys. Severe seizuring noted antemortem was attributed to several large, discrete areas of acute hemorrhagic infarction within the cerebrum and cerebellum. Natural A. vasorum infection in domestic dogs in eastern Newfoundland causes lung pathology of variable severity, which in some cases, may progress to cor pulmonale and which may be associated with extrapulmonary lesions and clinical signs.

Of 4,268 wild ducks sampled in Canada in 2005, real-time reverse transcriptase–PCR detected influenza A matrix protein (M1) gene sequence in 37% and H5 gene sequence in 5%. Mallards accounted for 61% of samples, 73% of M1-positive ducks, and 90% of H5-positive ducks. Ducks hatched in 2005 accounted for 80% of the sample.

The primary hosts for influenza A viruses are waterfowl, although gulls and shorebirds are also important in global avian influenza dynamics. Avian influenza virus genes are separated phylogenetically into two geographic clades, American and Eurasian, which is caused by the geographic separation of the host species between these two regions. We surveyed a gregarious and cosmopolitan species, the Great Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus), in Newfoundland, Canada, for the presence of avian influenza viruses. We have isolated and determined the complete genome sequence of an H13N2 virus, A/Great Black-backed Gull/Newfoundland/296/2008(H13N2), from one of these birds. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that this virus contained two genes in the American gull clade (PB1, HA), two genes in the American avian clade (PA, NA), and four genes in the Eurasian gull clade (PB2, NP, M, NS). We analyzed bird band recovery information and found the first evidence of trans-Atlantic migration from Newfoundland to Europe (UK, Spain and Portugal) for this species. Thus, great black-backed gulls could be important for movement of avian influenza viruses across the Atlantic Ocean and within North America.

Klebsiella spp. is a common cause of bovine mastitis, but information regarding its molecular epidemiology is lacking from many parts of the world. On using mass spectrometry and partial sequencing of the rpoB gene, it was found that over a one year study, K. variicola and Enterobacter cloacae were misidentified as K. pneumoniae in a small number of clinical mastitis (CM) cases from Newfoundland. Results suggest that the currently used standard biochemical/phenotypic tests lack the sensitivity required to accurately discriminate among the three mentioned Gram negative bacteria. In addition, a single strain of K. variicola was associated with CM from one farm in the study as demonstrated by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) PCR. To the best of our knowledge, K. variicola, which is normally found in the environment, has not been isolated previously from milk obtained from cows with CM. Therefore, it is possible that K. variicola was not detected in milk samples in the past due to the inability of standard tests to discriminate it from other Klebsiella species.