An observed characteristic of the process of economic development over time, in a market oriented economy using the price mechanism to allocate resources, is an increase in the num ber and variety of financial institutions and a substantial rise in the proportion not only of money but also of the total of all financial assets relative to GNP and to tangible wealth. I However, the cdusal nature of this rel.ationship between financial development and economic growth has not been fully explored e'ther theoretically or empirically. Demand-Following and Supply-Leading Phenomena Typical statements indicate that the financial system somehow accommodates-or, to the extent that it nalfunctions, it restricts-growth of real per capita output. For example, * This paper has benefitted from comments by Richard Parter. I;onald Mead, Lester Chandler, and the participants in tire Conference on Banking in the Early States of Industrialization held at Bellagio, August 1964.

The authors investigated how students’ (N = 233) perceptions of the social environment of their eighth-grade classroom related to changes in motivation and engagement when they moved from seventh to eighth grade. In general, prior motivation and engagement were strong predictors of subsequent motivation and engagement, whereas gender, race, and prior achievement were not related to changes in motivation or engagement. A higher-order classroom social environment factor accounted for significant changes in all motivation and engagement outcomes. Four distinct dimensions of the social environment were differentially important in explaining changes in various indices of motivation and engagement. In general, however, students’ perceptions of teacher support, and the teacher as promoting interaction and mutual respect were related to positive changes in their motivation and engagement. Students’ perceptions of the teacher as promoting performance goals were related to negative changes in student motivation and engagement. Implications for recent educational reform initiatives were also discussed.

This research examined whether 5th-grade students' (N ϭ 602) perceptions of the classroom social environment (teacher support, promotion of mutual respect, promotion of task-related interaction, student support) were related to their engagement in the classroom (self-regulation and task-related interaction) and whether those relations were mediated by personal motivational beliefs (mastery goals, academic and social efficacy). Teacher support, promotion of interaction, and student support were related to both types of engagement, and those relations were fully or partially mediated by motivational beliefs. Relations with promoting mutual respect were not significant.

The relation between the learning environment (e.g., students' perceptions of the classroom goal structure and teachers' instructional discourse) and students' reported use of avoidance strategies (selfhandicapping, avoidance of help seeking) and preference to avoid novelty in mathematics was examined. Quantitative analyses indicated that students' reports of avoidance behaviors varied significantly among classrooms. A perceived emphasis on mastery goals in the classroom was positively related to lower reports of avoidance. Qualitative analyses revealed that teachers in high-mastery/low-avoidance and low-mastery/high-avoidance classrooms used distinctively different patterns of instructional and motivational discourse. High incidence of motivational support was uniquely characteristic of high-mastery/ low-avoidance classrooms, suggesting that mastery goals may include an affective component. Implications of the results for both theory and practice are discussed.

In Study 1, teachers identified 6th-grade students (N ϭ 844) as having 1 of 3 help-seeking behavioral tendencies in the classroom: avoidant, appropriate, or dependent. More students were identified as having appropriate (65%) than avoidant (22%) or dependent (13%) help-seeking tendencies. Student self-reports of help avoidance were in line with teacher reports. In Study 2, students displaying different help-seeking tendencies in math class differed from each other in self-reported motivational, affective, relational, and achievement-related ways. In general, avoidant help seekers had a more maladaptive profile compared with appropriate help seekers. In general, dependent help seekers had an adaptive profile regarding social relationships (similar to appropriate help seekers) but a maladaptive profile regarding anxiety, academic efficacy, and achievement (similar to avoidant help seekers).