The RAS-ERK pathway is known to play a pivotal role in differentiation, proliferation and tumour progression. Here, we show that ERK downregulates Forkhead box O 3a (FOXO3a) by directly interacting with and phosphorylating FOXO3a at Ser 294, Ser 344 and Ser 425, which NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript consequently promotes cell proliferation and tumorigenesis. The ERK-phosphorylated FOXO3a degrades via an MDM2-mediated ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. However, the nonphosphorylated FOXO3a mutant is resistant to the interaction and degradation by murine double minute 2 (MDM2), thereby resulting in a strong inhibition of cell proliferation and tumorigenicity. Taken together, our study elucidates a novel pathway in cell growth and tumorigenesis through negative regulation of FOXO3a by RAS-ERK and MDM2.The constitutive activation of certain signal transduction cascades leads to the development of tumours and the resistance of tumours to clinical therapy 1,2 . The RAS-ERK pathway triggers one of these cascades and governs many important functions, such as cell fate, differentiation, proliferation and survival in invertebrate and mammalian cells 3,4 . Human tumours frequently overexpress RAS or harbour activated RAS with a point mutation, which contributes substantially to tumour cell growth, invasion and angiogenesis 1, 2 , 5 -8. Cell plasma membrane receptor tyrosine kinases activate RAS GTPases, and GTP-bound RAS activates A-RAF, B-RAF and RAF-1 (ref. 10,17,18,21 , but the E3 ubiquitin ligase responsible for FOXO3a degradation has yet to be identified. MDM2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase plays an important role in the development of multiple human cancers through degrading tumour suppressor proteins, such as p53, RB and E-cadherin [22][23][24][25] . In addition, MDM2 has been shown to be regulated by the RAS-ERK signalling pathway 26 and blocking ERK activity with an MEK1 inhibitor, U0126, reduces MDM2 expression in breast cancer cells 27 .Here, we identify a novel pathway involving the downregulation of FOXO3a expression by RAS-ERK and MDM2, which leads to promotion of cell growth and tumorigenesis. We show that ERK interacts with and phosphorylates FOXO3a at Ser 294, Ser 344 and Ser 425; phosphorylation of FOXO3a at these residues increases FOXO3a-MDM2 interaction and enhances FOXO3a degradation via an MDM2-dependent ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. The non-phosphorylated FOXO3a-mimic mutant, compared to the phosphorylated FOXO3a-mimic mutant, exhibits more resistance to the interaction and degradation by MDM2, resulting in a strong inhibition of cell proliferation in vitro and tumorigenesis in vivo. RESULTS ERK suppresses FOXO3a stability and induces its nuclear exclusionThe RAS-ERK is an essential oncogenic signalling cascade that promotes tumour cell growth and development 8,28 . It was known that other oncogenic kinases, AKT and IKK, (Fig. 1b, c). Similarly, using Erk small interference RNA (siRNA) to knockdown ERK protein expression level in HeLa cells (Fig. 1d), or trea...

TNFalpha has recently emerged as a regulator linking inflammation to cancer pathogenesis, but the detailed cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this link remain to be elucidated. The tuberous sclerosis 1 (TSC1)/TSC2 tumor suppressor complex serves as a repressor of the mTOR pathway, and disruption of TSC1/TSC2 complex function may contribute to tumorigenesis. Here we show that IKKbeta, a major downstream kinase in the TNFalpha signaling pathway, physically interacts with and phosphorylates TSC1 at Ser487 and Ser511, resulting in suppression of TSC1. The IKKbeta-mediated TSC1 suppression activates the mTOR pathway, enhances angiogenesis, and results in tumor development. We further find that expression of activated IKKbeta is associated with TSC1 Ser511 phosphorylation and VEGF production in multiple tumor types and correlates with poor clinical outcome of breast cancer patients. Our findings identify a pathway that is critical for inflammation-mediated tumor angiogenesis and may provide a target for clinical intervention in human cancer.

SUMMARY IκB kinase β (IKKβ) is involved in tumor development and progression through activation of the nuclear factor (NF)–κB pathway. However, the molecular mechanism that regulates IKKβ degradation remains largely unknown. Here, we show that a Cullin 3 (CUL3)–based ubiquitin ligase, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1), is responsible for IKKβ ubiquitination. Depletion of KEAP1 led to the accumulation and stabilization of IKKβ and to up-regulation of NF-κB–derived tumor angiogenic factors. A systematic analysis of the CUL3, KEAP1, and RBX1 genomic loci revealed a high percentage of genome loss and missense mutations in human cancers that failed to facilitate IKKβ degradation. Our results suggest that the dysregulation of KEAP1-mediated IKKβ ubiquitination may contribute to tumorigenesis.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) can undergo post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation, glycosylation and ubiquitylation, leading to diverse physiological consequences and modulation of its biological activity. There is increasing evidence that methylation may parallel other post-translational modifications in the regulation of various biological processes. It is still not known, however, whether EGFR is regulated by this post-translational event. Here, we show that EGFR Arg 1175 is methylated by an arginine methyltransferase, PRMT5. Arg 1175 methylation positively modulates EGF-induced EGFR trans-autophosphorylation at Tyr 1173, which governs ERK activation. Abolishment of Arg 1175 methylation enhances EGF-stimulated ERK activation by reducing SHP1 recruitment to EGFR, resulting in augmented cell proliferation, migration and invasion of EGFR-expressing cells. Therefore, we propose a model in which the regulatory crosstalk between PRMT5-mediated Arg 1175 methylation and EGF-induced Tyr 1173 phosphorylation attenuates EGFR-mediated ERK activation.

Myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1), a Bcl-2-like antiapoptotic protein, plays a role in cell immortalization and chemoresistance in a number of human malignancies. A peptidylprolyl cis/trans isomerase, Pin1 is involved in many cellular events, such as cell cycle progression, cell proliferation, and differentiation through isomerizing prophosphorylated substrates. It has been reported that down-regulation of Pin1 induces apoptosis, and that Erk phosphorylates and upregulates Mcl-1; however, the underlying mechanisms for the two phenomena are not clear yet. Here, we showed that Pin 1 stabilizes Mcl-1, which is required for Mcl-1 posphorylation by Erk. First, we found expression of Mcl-1 and Pin1 were positively correlated and associated with poor survival in human breast cancer. We then showed that Erk could phosphorylate Mcl-1 at two consensus residues, Thr 92 and 163, which is required for the association of Mcl-1 and Pin1, resulting in stabilization of Mcl-1. Moreover, Pin1 is also required for the up-regulation of Mcl-1 by Erk activation. Based on this newly identified mechanism of Mcl-1 stabilization, two strategies were used to overcome Mcl-1-mediated chemoresistance: inhibiting Erk by Sorafenib, an approved clinical anticancer drug, or knocking down Pin1 by using a SiRNA technique. In conclusion, the current report not only unravels a novel mechanism to link Erk/Pin1 pathway and Mcl-1-mediated chemoresistance but also provides a plausible combination therapy, Taxol (Paclitaxel) plus Sorafenib, which was shown to be effective in killing breast cancer cells. [Cancer Res 2008;68(15):6109-17]

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) regulates various cellular functions, including tumorigenesis, and is inhibited by the tuberous sclerosis 1 (TSC1)–TSC2 complex. Here, we demonstrate that arrest-defective protein 1 (ARD1) physically interacts with, acetylates, and stabilizes TSC2, thereby repressing mTOR activity. The inhibition of mTOR by ARD1 inhibits cell proliferation and increases autophagy, thereby inhibiting tumorigenicity. Correlation between ARD1 and TSC2 abundance was apparent in multiple tumor types. Moreover, evaluation of loss of heterozygosity at Xq28 revealed allelic loss in 31% of tested breast cancer cell lines and tumor samples. Together, our findings suggest that ARD1 functions as an inhibitor of the mTOR pathway and that dysregulation of the ARD1-TSC2-mTOR axis may contribute to cancer development.

Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of death from cancer in the United States. Metastases in the liver, the most common metastatic site for colorectal cancer, are found in one-third of the patients who die of colorectal cancer. Currently, the genes and molecular mechanisms that are functionally critical in modulating colorectal cancer hepatic metastasis remain unclear. Here, we report our studies using functional selection in an orthotopic mouse model of colorectal cancer to identify a set of genes that play an important role in mediating colorectal cancer liver metastasis. These genes included APOBEC3G, CD133, LIPC, and S100P. Clinically, we found these genes to be highly expressed in a cohort of human hepatic metastasis and their primary colorectal tumors, suggesting that it might be possible to use these genes to predict the likelihood of hepatic metastasis. We have further revealed what we believe to be a novel mechanism in which APOBEC3G promotes colorectal cancer hepatic metastasis through inhibition of miR-29-mediated suppression of MMP2. Together, our data elucidate key factors and mechanisms involved in colorectal cancer liver metastasis, which could be potential targets for diagnosis and treatment. IntroductionAfter lymph nodes, the liver is the most common site for colorectal cancer metastasis, and liver metastasis is a common cause of cancer-related mortality (1-4). Most colorectal cancer patients with hepatic metastasis are not candidates for surgical treatment, and their 5-year survival rate following diagnosis of hepatic metastasis is below 10% (2, 4). It is well established that 5-year survival rates exceed 90% in patients diagnosed with early stage colorectal cancer (5, 6). It is imperative that we uncover the underlying mechanisms and genetic alterations that predispose to the metastatic phenotype in colorectal cancer. Such an understanding has the potential to improve early detection and prevention in addition to helping with developing novel targeted therapies for late stage disease. Studies reveal that genomic instability in cancer cells leads to cellular heterogeneity, which may guide tumor cell aggression and specific organ colonization during the metastatic process (7,8). Many studies have attempted to identify the metastasis-related genes in

Pancreatic cancer is an aggressive malignancy with morbidity rates almost equal to mortality rates because of the current lack of effective treatment options. Here, we describe a targeted approach to treating pancreatic cancer with effective therapeutic efficacy and safety in noninvasive imaging models. We developed a versatile expression vector "VISA" (VP16-GAL4-WPRE integrated systemic amplifier) and a CCKAR (cholecystokinin type A receptor) gene-based, pancreatic-cancer-specific promoter VISA (CCKAR-VISA) composite to target transgene expression in pancreatic tumors in vivo. Targeted expression of BikDD, a potent proapoptotic gene driven by CCKAR-VISA, exhibited significant antitumor effects on pancreatic cancer and prolonged survival in multiple xenograft and syngeneic orthotopic mouse models of pancreatic tumors with virtually no toxicity.