Estes and Straughan (6) developed an equation for the two-choice noncontingent reinforcement situation.Here S has two alternative responses either one of which may be followed by one of two environmental events. The occurrence of the events is controlled entirely by E and is independent of S's choices. A typical situation is one where there are two levers (alternative responses) with a light over each one (environmental events); S is to predict which light is going to flash next by pressing one of the levers. After S has pressed one of the levers E may then flash either the left or the right light according to a predetermined probability schedule.Contingent reinforcement, however, differs from noncontingent in that the events following the responses are, in part, S-controlled. Typically S has two alternative responses, and one of two environmental events may subsequently occur, but they are not independent of S's responding. In such a situation, there may be two levers and a ground-glass screen behind which are red and white bulbs. The levers are controlled by E so that either one can switch on either light and are manipulated according to a predetermined probability schedule. The S is to predict which lever will give, say, a red light. If E has set 1 The present research was conducted under grant M-814C from the National Institute of Mental Health. 2 The collection and analysis of data was mainly done by Paul J. Woods. Howard Brand and James M. Sakoda are senior staif on the project.
Lenz’s law is used to demonstrate that Newton’s third law includes forces acting at a distance. The action-reaction pair is the force on a magnet falling through a conducting tube at terminal velocity, and a force on the tube.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.