Introduction:Acute kidney injury (AKI) is one of the most common diseases among the newborns hospitalized in the neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), which is usually resulted from predisposing factors including sepsis, hypovolemia, asphyxia, respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), and heart failure. The goal of this study was to assess main etiologies, relevant risk factors, and early outcome of neonatal AKI.Materials and Methods:In a cross- sectional study, 49 consecutive neonates hospitalized in NICU of Besat hospital with diagnosis of AKI from October 2009 to October 2011 were investigated through census sampling method. AKI was diagnosed based on urine output and serum creatinine levels.Results:The prevalence of AKI was 1.54% (49 out of 3166 newborns hospitalized in NICU) with the female: male was 7:1. Thirty-nine patients (79.5%) were full-term neonates. Oliguria was observed in 38 (77.5%) patients. Sepsis was the most common predisposing factor for AKI in 77.5% of patients (n = 38) accompanied with the highest mortality rate among other factors (30.5%). Other leading causes of AKI included hypovolemia secondary to dehydration, followed by hypoxia secondary to RDS, patent ductus arteriosus, posterior urethral valve, asphyxia, and renal venous thrombosis. A positive relationship was observed between neonates' age, sex, urine output, and also between serum creatinine levels with initiation of dialysis. The mortality rate among the newborns hospitalized with AKI was 36.7%. Eighteen (36.7%) newborns were treated with peritoneal dialysis (PD) of whom 10 patients (55.6%) died, 31 patients were managed conservatively of whom five neonate died (25.9%).Discussion:Prognosis of AKI in the oliguric neonates requiring PD is very poor. It is thus recommended to prevent AKI by predicting and rapid diagnosis of AKI in patients with potential risk factors and also by early and effective treatment of such factors in individuals with AKI.

Background: Renal biopsy is an important diagnostic procedure in pediatric nephrology. Although considered as an invasive method, numerous renal diseases cannot be definitively diagnosed and treated without it. Objectives: The aim of this study was histopathological study of renal biopsy results in children of 6 months to 18 years old. Patients and Methods: In this retrospective cross-sectional study, the available data from children who had undergone kidney biopsy between 2007 and the end of 2017 were evaluated. Demographic data, indications of biopsy, the outcome of patients, biopsy complications and histopathologic findings were collected using a checklist. Finally, data were presented as frequency and percentages. Results: The most common cause of biopsy in children was nephrotic syndrome (43.7%). Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) with 39 cases (32.7%) had the highest frequency in examined biopsies. In the long-term follow-up, 71 children (59.7%) cured, 7 (5.9%) died, 25 (21.0%) continued treatment, 6 (5.0%) underwent a kidney transplant surgery, and the outcome of 10 children (8.8%) was unknown. While 6.7% of patients were diagnosed with complications of biopsy, the most frequent of them was hematuria. There was no case of death or nephrectomy and only one patient needed packed RBC transfusion. Conclusion: Nephrotic syndrome was the most common indication for kidney biopsy. FSGS had the highest frequency in examined biopsies.

Background: "Clinical reasoning" is the key skill in medical practice, and well beyond mere medical knowledge. However, regarding the current medical school curriculums, little attention has been paid to develop such skills. It might be the reason why diagnostic errors are still the major causes of the patients' harm. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of teaching clinical reasoning skills (problem-based training in small groups) on improvement of the clinical performance of medical interns. Materials and Methods:This quasi-experimental study was conducted from September 2012 to September 2013. All of the interns entering the Pediatrics Department of Hamadan Medical Faculty (4 three-month courses) were enrolled. Courses were assigned alternately as intervention and control. Interns in the control group had conventional training but for intervention group, a clinical reasoning workshop was held in addition to the conventional education. To assess both groups, the Clinical Reasoning Problem (CRP) test was used as the pretest and posttest. Data were analyzed with t test and paired t test. Results: Out of 62 participants, 30 (48%) were in the control group and 32 (52%) in the case group. Two groups were similar in baseline characteristics such as age and sex (P > 0.05). There was no significant difference between the scores of the two groups' pretests (P > 0.05). The mean pretest and posttest scores of the control group had no significant difference (P > 0.05), but comparison of the mean pretest and posttest scores of case group represented significant difference (P < 0.05). Conclusions:Clinical reasoning workshop will probably have a positive impact on upgrading clinical problem-solving skills.

Perhaps when China reported its first cases of the novel coronavirus in December 2019, few would predict that it would overwhelm the majority of the global community. The first reports conveyed that the rate of infection and death from this virus among children is rare. However, evidence showed that there is no particular age range for the disease and children, infants and even neonates may be infected. Although COVID-19 primarily targets the host’s respiratory system, complications in other organs such as heart, kidney and liver have been observed as well. This mini-review attempts to consider the publications focused on the COVID-19 infection among children with emphasis on renal involvement and the treatment approach of this complication.

Introduction: The use of a simple and accurate glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimating method aiming minute assessment of renal function can be of great clinical importance. Objectives: This study aimed to determine the association of a GFR estimating by equation that includes only cystatin C (Gentian equation) to equation that include only creatinine (Schwartz equation) among children. Patients and Methods: A total of 31 children aged from 1 day to 5 years with the final diagnosis of unilateral or bilateral hydronephrosis referred to Besat hospital in Hamadan, between March 2010 and February 2011 were consecutively enrolled. Schwartz and Gentian equations were employed to determine GFR based on plasma creatinine and cystatin C levels, respectively. Results: The proportion of GFR based on Schwartz equation was 70.19± 24.86 ml/min/1.73 m2, while the level of this parameter based on Gentian method and using cystatin C was 86.97 ± 21.57 ml/min/1.73 m2. The Pearson correlation coefficient analysis showed a strong direct association between the two levels of GFR measured by Schwartz equation based on serum creatinine level and Gentian method and using cystatin C (r = 0.594, P < 0.001). The linear association between GFR values measured with the two methods included cystatin C based GFR = 50.8+ 0.515 × Schwartz GFR. The correlation between GFR values measured by using serum creatinine and serum cystatin C measurements remained meaningful even after adjustment for patients’ gender and age (r = 0.724, P < 0.001). Conclusion: The equation developed based on cystatin C level is comparable with another equation, based on serum creatinine (Schwartz formula) to estimate GFR in children.

Background Given the importance of the function of the remnant kidney in children with unilateral renal agenesis and the significance of timely diagnosis and treatment of reflux nephropathy to prevent further damage to the remaining kidney, we aimed to determine the prevalence of reflux nephropathy in this subgroup of pediatric patients. Methods In general, 274 children referred to pediatric nephrologists in different parts of Iran were evaluated, of whom 199 had solitary kidney and were included in this cross-sectional study. The reasons for referral included urinary tract infection (UTI), abnormal renal ultrasonography, being symptomatic, and incidental screening. Demographic characteristics, including age and gender were recorded. History of UTI and presence of vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) were evaluated. Results Of the 274 children evaluated in this study with the mean age (SD) of 4.71 (4.24) years, 199 (72.6%) had solitary kidney. Among these, 118 (59.3%) were male and 81 (60.7%) were female, 21.1% had a history of UTI, and VUR was present in 23.1%. The most common cause of referral was abnormal renal ultrasonography (40.2%), followed by incidental screening (21.1%), being symptomatic (14.1%), and UTI (5.5%). In 116 children (58.3%), the right kidneys and in 83 (41.7%) the left kidneys were absent. Besides, 14.6% of the participants had consanguineous parents and 3% had a family history of solitary kidney. Upon DMSA scan, the single kidney was scarred in 13.1%, of which only 7.5% were associated with VUR. In addition, proteinuria and hematuria were observed in 6.5% and 1.5% of children, respectively. Conclusions The prevalence of reflux nephropathy was 7.5% in children with solitary kidney with a male predominance. Given the relatively high prevalence of reflux nephropathy in these children, screening for VUR in the remnant kidney appears to be essential in this population.

Renal arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is a rare cause of gross hematuria in children and adolescents that may present so acute and severe hematuria, leading to significant anemia in patients. We present a 14-year old girl with acute massive gross hematuria with no history of trauma or coagulation defect. Although AVM not common, it should be included in the differential diagnosis of gross hematuria in children and adolescents.

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