Monoterpene synthases (MTSs) catalyze the initial committed step in the biosynthesis of monoterpenes. MTSs control challenging reactions that involve highly reactive carbocations through exquisite steric and electrostatic confinement, in some cases with remarkable product specificity and enantioselectivity. Using two well-characterized MTSs as models, (4S)-(−)-limonene synthase (LMNS) and (+)-bornyl diphosphate synthase (BPPS), we implemented an iterative approach that involves comparative atomistic simulations and experimental testing of wild-type enzymes and thirty-six variants to identify the mechanistic underpinnings of selectivity. Free energy simulations indicate that a common reaction intermediate, the α-terpinyl cation (ATC), preferentially adopts one of two different conformations in LMNS and BPPS, thus leading to the formation of monocyclic monoterpenes in the former and bicyclic products in the latter. An assessment of the ATC binding free energy in LMNS, BPPS, and variants revealed that nonbonded interactions with active site residues explain the propensity of the ATC to assume a favored conformation that is consistent with the experimentally determined reaction outcome. The free energy of the ATC in different environments (active sites of LMNS, BPPS, and variants) correlates strongly with the ratio of monocyclic to bicyclic products in model MTSs.
Targeted covalent inhibition represents one possible strategy to block the function of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease (MPRO), an enzyme that plays a critical role in the replication of the novel SARS-CoV-2. Toward the design of covalent inhibitors, we built a covalent inhibitor dataset using deep learning models followed by high throughput virtual screening of these candidates against MPRO. Two top-ranking inhibitors were selected for mechanistic investigations—one with an activated ester warhead that has a piperazine core and the other with an acrylamide warhead. Specifically, we performed a detailed analysis of the free energetics of covalent inhibition by hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics simulations. Cleavage of a fragment of the non-structured protein (NSP) from the SARS-CoV-2 genome was also simulated for reference. Simulations show that both candidates form more stable enzyme-inhibitor (E-I) complexes than the chosen NSP. It was found that both the NSP fragment and the activated ester inhibitor react with CYS145 of MPRO in a concerted manner, whereas the acrylamide inhibitor follows a stepwise mechanism. Most importantly, the reversible reaction and the subsequent hydrolysis reaction from E-I complexes are less probable when compared to the reactions with an NSP fragment, showing promise for these candidates to be the base for efficient MPRO inhibitors.
Coronavirus infections, such as the global COVID-19 pandemic, have had a profound impact on many aspects of our daily life including working style, economy, and the healthcare system. To prevent the rapid viral transmission and speed up recovery from the infection, many academic organizations and industry research labs have conducted extensive research on discovering new therapeutic options for SARS-CoV-2. Among those efforts, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) inhibitors such as Remdesivir, Molnupiravir and 3CLpro inhibitor such as Nirmatrelvir (PaxlovidTM) have been widely used as the therapeutic options. Given the recent emergence of several new variants that caused a resurgence of the virus, it would be beneficial to discover more diverse therapeutic options with novel anti-viral mechanisms. In this regard, PLpro has been highlighted since it, along with 3CLpro, is one of the two most important proteases that are required for SARS-CoV-2 viral processing. While 3CLpro inhibitors were extensively investigated in the light of Emergency Use Authorizations of Nirmatrelvir, PLpro inhibitors have not been thoroughly investigated even preclinically. Thus, discovery efforts on antivirals acting against PLpro will be valuable. PLpro inhibitors may exert their activity by inhibiting viral replication and enhancing the host defense system through blocking virus-induced cell signaling events for evading host immune response. In this study, we report the discovery and development of two covalent irreversible PLpro inhibitors, HUP0109 and its deuterated analog DX-027, out of our quest for novel anti-COVID 19 therapeutic agents for the past two and half years. HUP0109 selectively targets the viral catalytic cleft of PLpro and covalently modifies its active site cysteine residue (C111). Promising results from preclinical evaluation suggest that DX-027 can be developed as a potential COVID-19 treatment.
In beam-based ionization methods, the substrate plays an important role on the desorption mechanism of molecules from surfaces. Both the specific orientation that a molecule adopts at a surface and the strength of the molecule-surface interaction can greatly influence desorption processes, which in turn will affect the ion yield and the degree of in-source fragmentation of a molecule. In the beam-based method of secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), in-source fragmentation can be significant and molecule specific due to the hard ionization method of using a primary ion beam for molecule desorption. To investigate the role of the substrate on orientation and in-source fragmentation, we have used atomistic simulations—molecular dynamics in combination with density functional theory calculations—to explore the desorption of a sphingolipid (palmitoylsphingomyelin) from a model surface (gold). We then compare SIMS data from this model system to our modeling findings. Using this approach, we found that the combined adsorption and binding energy of certain bonds associated with the headgroup fragments (C3H8N+, C5H12N+, C5H14NO+, and C5H15PNO4+) was a good predictor for fragment intensities (as indicated by relative ion yields). This is the first example where atomistic simulations have been applied in beam-based ionization of lipids, and it presents a new approach to study biointerfacial lipid ordering effects on SIMS imaging.
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