Reputation is considered a fundamental mechanism for cooperation. Dogs can use their direct experience to form reputation judgments about humans that are either nice or not towards others, however it is unknown if dogs can take skilfulness into account when requesting human help. Here, we investigated reputation formation based on human skilfulness. In study 1, 32 adult pet dogs witnessed four blocks of two demonstration types: a skilful experimenter succeeded in solving a puzzle and obtaining food for the dog, while an unskilful experimenter failed. Each block was followed by an unsolvable task trial, where the dogs were presented a container baited with food that was inaccessible to the dog. During the task, the experimenters stood on either side of the container. Referential looks towards each experimenter were recorded. Dogs did not choose the skilful experimenter above chance and did not prefer the skilful experimenter over the unskilful one. In order to simplify the task and avoid carryover effects, in a second study dogs only witnessed one type of demonstration and were then tested in a single unsolvable task trial. To further simplify the demonstrations, the experimenter either skilfully helped the dog (skilful demonstration), or did not help the dog at all (no-help demonstration). Forty-eight dogs were allocated to one of four demonstration groups: demonstrations could be either skilful or with no-help ("skilfulness" variable) and nice or ignoring ("quality of interaction" variable). Dogs' looking back behaviour did not differ in any of the conditions. However, when pooling the "quality of interaction" groups to compare the two "skilfulness" groups, a trend towards significance was observed between the duration of looking in the skilful group and the non-helpful group (Wilcoxon signed rank test: Mdnskilful = 9.20, interquartile range 3.98-20.65; Mdnno-help = 4.90 interquartile range 1.35-8.58, T = 1.93, p = 0.05, r = 0.39). The results should be considered cautiously and cannot confirm that dogs could take skilfulness into account when looking referentially at humans for help, or use the information to evaluate them in this specific context.

Eavesdropping is the acquisition of information by observing third-party interactions. Considering dogs' (Canis lupus familiaris) dependence on humans, it would be beneficial for them to eavesdrop on human interactions to choose an appropriate partner to associate with. Previous studies have found that dogs preferred a human who acted generously or cooperatively towards another human over one who acted selfishly or non-cooperatively, however they often did not control for potential location biases. This study controlled for local enhancement and investigated whether dogs derive and act on information about unfamiliar humans through reputation-like inferences by observing third-party interactions. 42 dogs participated in the experiment, which consisted of an observation phase and a test phase. In the observation phase, the animals observed a human with a box of food ask for help to open it from two people-one was helpful and the other was not. The test phase consisted of the impossible task and a choice test. Half of the sample was tested in the experimental condition and the other half was tested in the side control condition, where the two people swapped positions before the test phase. The results of the impossible task showed that dogs only looked at the helpful person first when the people stayed on the same side as they did in the observation phase. In the choice test, dogs chose at random, regardless of whether the people stayed on the same side or swapped positions. Our findings provide tentative support for a local enhancement interpretation of eavesdropping.

Reputation is a key component in social interactions of group-living animals and appears to play a role in the establishment of cooperation. Animals can form a reputation of an individual by directly interacting with them or by observing them interact with a third party, i.e., eavesdropping. Elephants are an interesting taxon in which to investigate eavesdropping as they are highly cooperative, large-brained, long-lived terrestrial mammals with a complex social organisation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) could form reputations of humans through indirect and/or direct experience in two different paradigms: (1) a cooperative string-pulling task and (2) a scenario requiring begging. Fourteen captive Asian elephants in Thailand participated in an experimental procedure that consisted of three parts: baseline, observation, and testing. In the observation phase, the subject saw a conspecific interact with two people—one cooperative/generous and one non-cooperative/selfish. The observer could then choose which person to approach in the test phase. The elephants were tested in a second session 2–5 days later. We found no support for the hypothesis that elephants can form reputations of humans through indirect or direct experience, but these results may be due to challenges with experimental design rather than a lack of capacity. We discuss how the results may be due to a potential lack of ecological validity in this study and the difficulty of assessing motivation and attentiveness in elephants. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of designing future experiments that account for the elephants' use of multimodal sensory information in their decision-making.

Reputation is a key component in social interactions of group-living animals and appears to play a role in the establishment of cooperation. Animals can form reputations of individuals by directly interacting with them or by observing them interact with a third party, i.e., eavesdropping. Previous research has focused on whether dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) can eavesdrop on humans because of their ability to cooperate with humans, however the results are mixed and if they can eavesdrop, it is unknown whether this ability evolved during the domestication process or whether it was inherited from their ancestor, wolves (Canis lupus). Our study investigated whether equally hand-raised, pack-living dogs and wolves can form reputations of humans in a food-giving situation through indirect and/or direct experience. The experimental procedure comprised three parts: baseline (to test whether the subject preferred a person prior to the experiment), observation and testing. In the observation phase, the subject observed two humans interact with a dog demonstrator–one acted generously and fed the dog, and the other acted selfishly and refused to feed the dog. The subject could then choose which person to approach in the test phase. In the following experience phase, the animals interacted directly with the same two humans who behaved either in a generous or selfish manner. Then, they were again given a choice whom to approach. We found that dogs and wolves, at the group level, did not differentiate between a generous or selfish partner after indirect or direct experience, but wolves were more attentive towards the generous person during the observation phase and some dogs and wolves did prefer the generous partner, at least after indirect and direct experience was combined. Our study suggests that reputation formation may be more difficult than expected for animals and we emphasise the importance of context when studying reputation formation in animals.

To promote collaboration across canine science, address replicability issues, and advance open science practices within animal cognition, we have launched the ManyDogs consortium, modeled on similar ManyX projects in other fields. We aimed to create a collaborative network that (a) uses large, diverse samples to investigate and replicate findings, (b) promotes open science practices of pre-registering hypotheses, methods, and analysis plans, (c) investigates the influence of differences across populations and breeds, and (d) examines how different research methods and testing environments influence the robustness of results. Our first study combines a phenomenon that appears to be highly reliable—dogs’ ability to follow human pointing—with a question that remains controversial: do dogs interpret pointing as a social communicative gesture or as a simple associative cue? We collected data (N = 455) from 20 research sites on two conditions of a 2-alternative object choice task: (1) Ostensive (pointing to a baited cup after making eye-contact and saying the dog’s name); (2) Non-ostensive (pointing without eye-contact, after a throat-clearing auditory control cue). Comparing performance between conditions, while both were significantly above chance, there was no significant difference in dogs’ responses. This result was consistent across sites. Further, we found that dogs followed contralateral, momentary pointing at lower rates than has been reported in prior research, suggesting that there are limits to the robustness of point-following behavior: not all pointing styles are equally likely to elicit a response. Together, these findings underscore the important role of procedural details in study design and the broader need for replication studies in canine science.