Osteoclasts are derived from hematopoietic precursor cells belonging to the monocyte/macrophage lineage. Osteoclast development has been reported to be regulated by several molecules such as macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), receptor activator of nuclear factor (NF)-B ligand (RANKL), and a decoy receptor of RANKL, osteoprotegerin (OPG). Recently, it was demonstrated that the Notch signaling pathway regulates myeloid differentiation and antagonizes cell fate determination, however, the effect of Notch signaling on the osteoclast lineage has not been reported. In this study, we examined the effect of signaling via Notch receptors on the differentiation into osteoclasts by using cells from the bone marrow, spleen, and peritoneal cavity, and a cloned macrophagelike cell line IntroductionThe control of cell fate by Notch signaling was first described for Drosophila melanogaster neural/epidermal precursors as a mechanism involving lateral inhibition. 1,2 At present, 4 Notch receptors, Notch-1, -2, -3, and -4, and their ligands, Delta-1, -3, and -4, and Jagged-1 and -2 have been identified in mammals. [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] Notch ligands bind to Notch receptors through their extracellular domain, trigger proteolytic processing, and release the Notch intracellular domain (NIC) from the cell membrane. Cleaved NIC interacts with the DNA-binding transcription factor CBF1/RBP-J, and the complex is translocated into the nucleus. 12,13 This complex binds to the Hairy enhancer of split (Hes1) promoter and stimulates the transcription of the Hes1 gene. 14,15 Overexpressed NIC acts as a constitutively active form of Notch receptor. 16 Recently, several studies have reported the roles of Notch signaling in hematopoietic cell development. 17-20 NIC transgenic mice have defective B-cell development. 21 Notch signaling influences the decision of differentiation into ␣ versus ␥␦T cells, 22 as well as that of differentiation into CD4 versus CD8 T cells. 23 Delta-1 blocks differentiation into the B-cell lineage, while it promotes the emergence of T/natural killer (NK) cell precursors. 24 In myeloid cell lineages, an immobilized form of the extracellular domain of Delta-1 induces monocytes to undergo apoptosis when treated with macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) 25 and inhibits the differentiation of monocytes into mature macrophages when treated with granulocyte/macrophage (GM)-CSF, but permits their differentiation into dendritic cells in the presence of GM-CSF and interleukin-4 (IL-4). 26 Osteoclasts are also included in the myeloid lineage and are derived from hematopoietic precursor cells shared with the macrophage and dendritic cell lineages. 27,28 Osteoclast differentiation is a multistep process that eventually leads to expression of tartrateresistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), multinucleation, and boneresorbing activity. [29][30][31][32][33] Osteoclastogenesis is dependent on stromal cells that support hematopoiesis, [34][35][36] and it has been demonstrated that the critical molecules produced by s...
Foxp3 Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a critical role in the maintenance of colon homeostasis. Here we utilized photoconvertible KikGR mice to track immune cells from the caecum and ascending (proximal) colon in the steady state and DSS-induced colitis. We found that Tregs from the proximal colon (colonic migratory Tregs) migrated exclusively to the distal part of mesenteric lymph nodes (dMLN) in an S1PR1-dependent process. In the steady state, colonic migratory CD25 Tregs expressed higher levels of CD103, ICOS, LAG3 and CTLA-4 in comparison with pre-existing LN Tregs. Intestinal inflammation led to accelerated Treg replacement in the colon, bidirectional Treg migration from the colon to dMLN and vice versa, as well as increases in Treg number, proliferation and expression of immunosuppressive molecules. This was especially apparent for CD25 very high Tregs induced in colitis. Furthermore, colonic migratory Tregs from the inflamed colon included more interleukin (IL)-10 producing cells, and demonstrated greater inhibition of T-cell proliferation in comparison with pre-existing LN Tregs. Thus, our results suggest that Tregs with superior immunosuppressive capacity are increased both in the colon and dMLN upon inflammation. These Tregs recirculate between the colon and dMLN, and are likely to contribute to the downregulation of intestinal inflammation.
It is now apparent that immune cells express a functional cholinergic system and that α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7 nAChRs) are involved in regulating T cell differentiation and the synthesis of antigen-specific antibodies and proinflammatory cytokines. Here, we investigated the specific function α7 nAChRs on T cells and antigen presenting cells (APCs) by testing the effect of GTS-21, a selective α7 nAChR agonist, on differentiation of CD4 + T cells from ovalbumin (OVA)-specific TCR transgenic DO11.10 mice activated with OVA or OVA peptide 323−339 (OVAp). GTS-21 suppressed OVA-induced antigen processing-dependent development of CD4 + regulatory T cells (Tregs) and effector T cells (Th1, Th2, and Th17). By contrast, GTS-21 up-regulated OVAp-induced antigen processing-independent development of CD4 + Tregs and effector T cells. GTS-21 also suppressed production of IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-17, and IL-6 during OVA-induced activation but, with the exception IL-2, enhanced their production during OVAp-induced activation. In addition, during antigen-nonspecific, APC-independent anti-CD3/CD28 antibody-induced CD4 + polyclonal T cell activation in the presence of respective polarizing cytokines, GTS-21 promoted development of all lineages, which indicates that GTS-21 also acts via α7 nAChRs on T cells. These results suggest 1) that α7 nAChRs on APCs suppress CD4 + T cell activation by interfering with antigen presentation through inhibition of antigen processing; 2) that α7 nAChRs on CD4 + T cells up-regulate development of Tregs and effector T cells; and that α7 nAChR agonists and antagonists could be potentially useful agents for immune response modulation and enhancement.
Th17 cells and the cytokine they produce, interleukin (IL)-17, play an important role in tumor progression in humans and in mice. IL-6 and IL-23 are critical cytokines for the differentiation and propagation of Th17 cells, respectively. Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are known to stimulate immune cells to produce such inflammatory cytokines. Contrary to Escherichia coli (E. coli) LPS, LPS from Spirulina has low toxicity and barely induces in vivo production of IL-6 and IL-23 in mice. We examined the antitumor effects of Spirulina LPS compared to E. coli LPS in an MH134 hepatoma model. Administration of Spirulina LPS suppressed tumor growth in C3H/HeN mice, but not in Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mutant C3H/HeJ mice, by reducing serum levels of IL-17 and IL-23, while increasing interferon (IFN)-γ levels. The antitumor activity and IFN-γ production were mediated by T cells. Moreover, in vitro experiments showed that Spirulina LPS impaired the antigen-presenting function that supports the generation of IL-17-producing cells in a toll-like receptor (TLR)4-dependent manner. Of note, injection of anti-IL-17 antibody in tumor-bearing C3H/HeN mice in the absence of Spirulina LPS markedly suppressed tumor growth and augmented IFN-γ responses. Thus, our results support the notion that IFN-γ and IL-17/IL-23 mutually regulate Th17 and Th1 responses in tumor-bearing hosts, and Spirulina LPS modulates the balance of the IFN-γ-IL-17/IL-23 axis towards IFN-γ production, which leads to tumor inhibition. Furthermore, Spirulina LPS effectively inhibited the spontaneous development of mammary tumors. This study has important implications for the exploitation of TLR-based immunomodulators for cancer immunotherapy.
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