-We examined mechanisms of FITC-albumin uptake by alveolar type II epithelial cells using cultured RLE-6TN cells. Alkaline phosphatase activity and the expression of cytokeratin 19 mRNA, which are characteristic features of alveolar type II epithelial cells, were detected in RLE-6TN cells. The uptake of FITCalbumin by the cells was time and temperature dependent and showed the saturation kinetics of high-and low-affinity transport systems. FITC-albumin uptake was inhibited by native albumin, by chemically modified albumin, and by metabolic inhibitors and bafilomycin A 1, an inhibitor of vacuolar H ϩ -ATPase. Confocal laser scanning microscopic analysis after FITCalbumin uptake showed punctate localization of fluorescence in the cells, which was partly localized in lysosomes. FITC-albumin taken up by the cells gradually degraded over time, as shown by fluoroimage analyzer after SDS-PAGE. The uptake of FITC-albumin by RLE-6TN cells was not inhibited by nystatin, indomethacin, or methyl-␤-cyclodextrin (inhibitors of caveolae-mediated endocytosis) but was inhibited by phenylarsine oxide and chlorpromazine (inhibitors of clathrin-mediated endocytosis) in a concentration-dependent manner. Uptake was also inhibited by potassium depletion and hypertonicity, conditions known to inhibit clathrin-mediated endocytosis. These results indicate that the uptake of FITC-albumin in cultured alveolar type II epithelial cells, RLE-6TN, is mediated by clathrin-mediated but not by caveolae-mediated endocytosis, and intracellular FITC-albumin is gradually degraded in lysosomes. Possible receptors involved in this endocytic system are discussed. albumin clearance; caveolae-mediated endocytosis; endocytic receptor; modified albumin; protein transport THE DISTAL AIR SPACES OF THE lung (alveolar region) are lined with a continuous epithelium comprising two major types of epithelial cells, type I and type II. Type I epithelial cells have a squamous morphology and cover ϳ90 -95% of the alveolar surface area. Type II cells are cuboidal epithelial cells and cover ϳ5-10% of the surface area, although the number of type II cells in alveolar epithelia is similar to or more than that of type I cells. Type II cells also serve as progenitors of type I cells (13,40). Alveolar lining fluid contains various physiologically important proteins such as albumin, immunoglobulin G, and transferrin. The concentration of albumin in alveolar fluid is usually much lower than that in the blood, whereas the concentration would increase to 40 -65% of plasma level in hydrostatic pulmonary edema and to 75-95% in lung injury pulmonary edema. The clearance of serum proteins from the alveolar space is a critical process in recovery from pulmonary edema and in maintaining the normal alveolar milieu (17,22). Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of protein transport in alveolar epithelial cells is important for the development of better therapeutic approaches. In addition, such information could provide new insights into improved strategies for pulmonary delivery of ex...

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Exposure of neonates to oxidative stress may increase the risk of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia in adulthood. However, the effects of moderate oxidative stress on the adult brain are not completely understood. To address this issue, we systemically administrated 2-cyclohexen-1-one (CHX) to adult rats to transiently reduce glutathione levels. Repeated administration of CHX did not affect the acquisition or motivation of an appetitive instrumental behavior (lever pressing) rewarded by a food outcome under a progressive ratio schedule. In addition, response discrimination and reversal learning were not affected. However, acute CHX administration blunted the sensitivity of the instrumental performance to outcome devaluation, and this effect was prolonged in rats with a history of repeated CHX exposure, representing pro-depression-like phenotypes. On the other hand, repeated CHX administration reduced immobility in forced swimming tests and blunted acute cocaine-induced behaviors, implicating antidepressant-like effects. Multivariate analyses segregated a characteristic group of behavioral variables influenced by repeated CHX administration. Taken together, these findings suggest that repeated administration of CHX to adult rats did not cause a specific mental disorder, but it induced long-term alterations in behavioral and cognitive functions, possibly related to specific neural correlates.

The distinction between goal-directed action and habitual response, particularly with respect to moderate or extended appetitive instrumental training, is well documented; however, the propensity toward instrumental behavior in the early training stage has not been elucidated. In this study, we trained Sprague Dawley rats to press a lever to obtain food as an outcome for various time periods and monitored the changes in their sensitivity to outcome devaluation and choice between the levers they had been trained with and unfamiliar levers. After the extensive training with a random interval schedule, the rats were insensitive to outcome devaluation, and exhibited a typical habit-like phenotype, as previously reported, and the untrained leverpresses were relatively rare and sporadic. During the initial stage of training (≤1 week), the rats exhibited a similar insensitivity to the devaluation; however, in contrast to the overtrained condition, they performed distinctive unbiased leverpresses on both the trained and untrained levers. Thus, we propose a possibility that, contrary to the authentic concept that instrumental learning is initiated with an outcome devaluation-sensitive goal-directed stage, under some conditions, this learning can unconventionally begin with the initial stage that is distinct from both goal-directed action and habitual response.

Stress is a major factor in the development of major depressive disorder (MDD), but few studies have assessed individual risk based on pre-stress behavioral and cognitive traits. To address this issue, we employed appetitive instrumental lever pressing with a progressive ratio (PR) schedule to assess these traits in experimentally naïve Sprague-Dawley rats. Based on four distinct traits that were identified by hierarchical cluster analysis, the animals were classified into the corresponding four subgroups (Low Motivation, Quick Learner, Slow Learner, and Hypermotivation), and exposed to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) before monitoring their post-stress responses for 4 weeks. The four subgroups represented the following distinct behavioral phenotypes after CUS: the Low Motivation subgroup demonstrated weight loss and a late-developing paradoxical enhancement in PR performance that may be related to inappropriate decision-making in human MDD. The Quick Learner subgroup exhibited a transient loss of motivation and the habituation of serum corticosterone (CORT) response to repeated stress. The Slow Learner subgroup displayed resistance to demotivation and a suppressed CORT response to acute stress. Finally, the Hypermotivation subgroup exhibited resistance to weight loss, habituated CORT response to an acute stress, and a long-lasting amotivation. Overall, we identified causal relationships between pre-stress traits in the performance of the instrumental training and post-stress phenotypes in each subgroup. In addition, many of the CUS-induced phenotypes in rats corresponded to or had putative relationships with representative symptoms in human MDD. We concluded that the consequences of stress may be predictable before stress exposure by determining the pre-stress behavioral or cognitive traits of each individual in rats.