We introduce a hybrid organic–inorganic system consisting of epitaxial NaYF4:Yb3+/X3+@NaYbF4@NaYF4:Nd3+ (X = null, Er, Ho, Tm, or Pr) core/shell/shell (CSS) nanocrystal with organic dye, indocyanine green (ICG) on the nanocrystal surface. This system is able to produce a set of narrow band emissions with a large Stokes-shift (>200 nm) in the second biological window of optical transparency (NIR-II, 1000–1700 nm), by directional energy transfer from light-harvesting surface ICG, via lanthanide ions in the shells, to the emitter X3+ in the core. Surface ICG not only increases the NIR-II emission intensity of inorganic CSS nanocrystals by ~4-fold but also provides a broadly excitable spectral range (700–860 nm) that facilitates their use in bioapplications. We show that the NIR-II emission from ICG-sensitized Er3+-doped CSS nanocrystals allows clear observation of a sharp image through 9 mm thick chicken breast tissue, and emission signal detection through 22 mm thick tissue yielding a better imaging profile than from typically used Yb/Tm-codoped upconverting nanocrystals imaged in the NIR-I region (700–950 nm). Our result on in vivo imaging suggests that these ICG-sensitized CSS nanocrystals are suitable for deep optical imaging in the NIR-II region.

The relationship between microparticle (MP) size and lung targeting efficiency, intra-lung distribution and retention time was systematically studied after intravenous administration of rigid fluorescent polystyrene MPs of various sizes (2, 3, 6 and 10μm) to Sprague-Dawley rats. Total fluorescence was assessed and it was found that 2μm and 3μm MPs readily passed through the lung to the liver and spleen while 10μm MPs were completely entrapped in the lung for the one-week duration of the study. Approximately 84% of 6μm MPs that were initially entrapped in the lung were cleared over the next 2 days and 15% were cleared over the remaining 5 days. A Caliper IVIS® 100 small animal imaging system confirmed that 3μm MPs were not retained in the lung but that 6μm and 10μm MPs were widely distributed throughout the lung. Moreover, histologic examination showed MP entrapment in capillaries but not arterioles. These studies suggest that for rigid MPs the optimal size range required to achieve transient but highly efficiently targeting to pulmonary capillaries after IV injection is >6μm but <10μm in rats and that systemic administration of optimally sized MPs may be an efficient alternative to currently used inhalation-based delivery to the lung. KeywordsPassive pulmonary targeting; Rigid non-biodegradable microparticle; In vivo imaging

Large (>6 µm) rigid microparticles (MPs) become passively entrapped within the lungs following intravenous injection making them an attractive and highly efficient alternative to inhalation for pulmonary delivery. In the current studies, PEGylated 6 μm polystyrene MPs with multiple copies of the norvaline (Nva) α-amino acid prodrug of camptothecin (CPT) were prepared. Surface morphology was characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). CPT was released from the CPT-Nva-MPs over 24 hours in rat plasma at 37°C. In vivo CPT plasma concentrations were low (~1 ng/mL or less) and constant over a period of 4 days after a single intravenous injection of CPT-Nva-MPs as compared to high but short-lived systemic exposures after an IV injection of free CPT. This suggests that sustained local CPT concentrations were achieved in the lung after administration of the MP delivery system. Anti-cancer efficacy was evaluated in an orthotopic lung cancer animal model and compared to a bolus injection of CPT. Animals receiving either free CPT (2 mg/kg) or CPT-Nva-MPs (0.22 mg/kg CPT, 100 mg/kg MPs) were found to have statistically significant smaller areas of lung cancer (P<0.05, P<0.01, respectively) than untreated animals. In addition, 40% of the animals receiving CPT-Nva-MPs were found to be free of cancer. The CPT dose using targeted MPs was ten fold lower than after IV injection of free CPT but was more effective in reducing the amount of cancerous areas. In conclusion, CPT-Nva-MPs were able to achieve effective local lung and low systemic CPT concentrations at a dose that was ten times lower than systemically administered CPT resulting in a significant improvement in anticancer efficacy in an orthotopic rat model of lung cancer.

Optoelectronic science and 2D nanomaterial technologies are currently at the forefront of multidisciplinary research and have numerous applications in electronics and photonics. The unique energy and optically induced interfacial electron transfer in these nanomaterials, enabled by their relative band alignment characteristics, can provide important therapeutic modalities for healthcare. Given that nano‐heterostructures can facilitate photoinduced electron–hole separation and enhance generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), 2D nano‐heterostructure‐based photosensitizers can provide a major advancement in photodynamic therapy (PDT), to overcome the current limitations in hypoxic tumor microenvironments. Herein, a bismuthene/bismuth oxide (Bi/BiOx)‐based lateral nano‐heterostructure synthesized using a regioselective oxidation process is introduced, which, upon irradiation at 660 nm, effectively generates 1O2 under normoxia but produces cytotoxic •OH and H2 under hypoxia, which synergistically enhances PDT. Furthermore, this Bi/BiOx nano‐heterostructure is biocompatible and biodegradable, and, with the surface molecular engineering used here, it improves tumor tissue penetration and increases cellular uptake during in vitro and in vivo experiments, yielding excellent oxygen‐independent tumor ablation with 660 nm irradiation, when compared with traditional PDT agents.