Systematic relationships among higher taxa within Chrysopidae, a large and agriculturally significant neuropteran family, are poorly understood. A molecular phylogenetic survey of Chrysopidae was performed with three nuclear genes, namely wingless (546 bp), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (483 bp), and sodium/potassium ATPase alpha subunit (410 bp). We examined 83 species in 24 genera, mainly from Japan, Eurasia and Africa. Parsimony and Bayesian analyses of combined datasets of a total of 1439 bp demonstrated that (1) monophyly of the subfamily Chrysopinae was supported but the relationship between Nothochrysinae and Apochrysinae was unclear, although the two subfamilies together may constitute the sister taxon of Chrysopinae; (2) of the three tribes examined within Chrysopinae (Ankylopterygini, Belonopterygini and Chrysopini), monophyly of Ankylopterygini and Belonopterygini was supported, but the relationships among the three remain unclear; (3) seven sub‐clades in Chrysopini were indicated, namely (i) Brinckochrysa, (ii) Chrysemosa + Suarius, (iii) Chrysotropia + Nineta, (iv) Mallada + Chrysoperla + Peyerimhoffina, (v) Cunctochrysa + Meleoma + Nipponochrysa + Apertochrysa albolineatoides, (vi) Chrysopa + Plesiochrysa, and (vii) Dichochrysa + Apertochrysa eurydera; and (4) most genera were monophyletic, except for Apertochrysa and Cunctochrysa, each of which was shown to have two distinct origins. Our molecular analysis allowed the assignment of several species of uncertain affinities to known genera. There was some disagreement between the molecular and previously published morphological phylogenies, but in general our results confirmed existing morphological hypotheses of evolution within the family.

We describe the complete mitochondrial genomes of the green lacewing species Chrysoperla nipponensis (Okamoto, 1914) and Apochrysa matsumurae Okamoto 1912 (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). The genomes were 16,057 and 16,214 bp in size, respectively, and comprised 37 genes (13 protein coding genes, 22 tRNA genes and two rRNA genes). A major noncoding (control) region was 1,244 bp in C. nipponensis and 1,407 in A. matsumurae, and the structure was simpler than that reported in other Neuroptera, lacking conserved blocks or long tandem repeats. The overall arrangement of genes was almost the same as that found in most arthropod mitochondrial genomes, with the one exception of a tRNA rearrangement to tRNA-Cys-tRNA-Trp-tRNA-Tyr, rather than the plesiomorphic tRNA-Trp-tRNA-Cys-tRNA-Tyr. A high A + T content (78.89 and 79.02%, respectively), A + T-rich codon bias, and a mismatch between the most-used codon and its corresponding tRNA anticodon were observed as a typical feature of the insect mitochondrial genome.

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The sweet potato vine borer moth, Omphisa anastomosalis (Pyraloidea: Crambidae), is a serious pest in tropical and subtropical Asia-Pacific regions. In previous work using a population from Okinawa, Japan, (10E,14E)-10,14-hexadecadienal (E10,E14-16:Ald) was identified as the major pheromone component, with hexadecanal, (E)-10-hexadecenal, and (E)-14-hexadecenal as minor components. However, traps baited with the synthetic compounds were less effective at attracting males in the field than those baited with virgin females. While Pyraloidea females usually produce only Type I pheromone components (unsaturated fatty alcohols and their derivatives), the pheromones of some Pyraloidea species have been shown to involve a combination of both Type I and Type II components (unsaturated hydrocarbons and their epoxides). We examined an extract of the pheromone glands of female O. anastomosalis from Vietnam by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and detected (3Z,6Z,9Z)-3,6,9-tricosatriene (Z3,Z6,Z9-23:H) in addition to the compounds identified previously. All four isomers of 10,14-16:Ald were synthesized. A mixture of synthetic E10,E14-16:Ald and Z3,Z6,Z9-23:H in a ratio of 1:0.2-1:2 was attractive to male moths in Vietnam, indicating the strong synergistic effect of the Type II compound. Addition of the other minor pheromone components to the binary blend did not increase the number of male moths captured. Combinations of Z3,Z6,Z9-23:H with the other three geometrical isomers of E10,E14-16:Ald attracted no males, further substantiating the 10E,14E configuration of the natural diene component. E10,E14-16:Ald mixed with other polyunsaturated hydrocarbons showed that mixtures that included a C21 triene, a C22 triene, or a C23 pentaene attracted as many males as did the mixture with Z3,Z6,Z9-23:H. The identification of a highly attractive sex pheromone will help in developing efficient strategies for monitoring and control of O. anastomosalis populations in sweet potato fields.

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The nettle moth Monema flavescens (Limacodidae) is a defoliator of fruit trees, such as Chinese plum and persimmon. The larvae of this species have spines containing a poison that causes serious irritation and inflammation in humans. Coupled gas chromatography-electroantennogram detection and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analyses of a crude pheromone extract, combined with derivatization, indicated that female moths produced 8-decen-1-ol and 7,9-decadien-1-ol at a ratio of approximately 9:1. The E configuration of the double bonds was assigned for both components from infrared spectra, recorded on a gas chromatograph/Fourier transform-infrared spectrophotometer equipped with a zinc selenide disk cooled to -30 °C. The monoenyl and dienyl alcohols had absorptions characteristic of E geometry at 966 and 951 cm(-1), respectively. A band chromatogram at 951 cm(-1) was useful for distinguishing geometric isomers, because terminal conjugated diene are difficult to resolve, even on high polarity columns. Furthermore, we identified the Z configuration of the same 7,9-dienyl alcohol secreted by another nettle moth, Parasa lepida lepida, through the absence of this absorption. In field trials, lures baited with a 9:1 mixture of (E)-8-decen-1-ol and (E)-7,9-decadien-1-ol attracted M. flavescens males. Furthermore, the field trials indicated that contamination with the (Z)-diene reduced catches to the pheromone mixture more than did contamination with the (Z)-monoene.

In addition to 2,13- and 3,13-octadecadien-1-ols and their acetates, aldehyde analogs have been identified from lepidopteran species in the family Sesiidae. To establish a reliable analytical method for determining the positions and configurations of the two double bonds in natural pheromone components, all geometric isomers of the 2,13- and 3,13-octadecadienals were synthesized by Dess-Martin oxidation of the corresponding alcohols with limited isomerization of the double bond at the 2- or 3-position. GC-MS analysis of these aldehydes showed isomerization of (Z)-2-, (Z)-3-, and (E)-3-double bonds to an (E)-2-double bond, even with a cool on-column injection. In contrast, HPLC analysis with an ODS column was accomplished without isomerization. The geometric isomers of each dienal eluted in the order ZZ --> EZ --> ZE --> EE. The conjugated 2,13-dienals were detectable in nanogram amounts with a UV detector at 235 nm. Whereas the detection of 3,13-dienals was difficult because of the lack of a chromophore, a highly sensitive analysis was achieved after derivatization with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. LC-MS with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization showed a strong [M-1](-) at m/z 443 for the derivatives. Based on these analytical data, a pheromone extract of a sesiid moth, Macroscelesia japona, was examined by HPLC and LC-MS, and it was confirmed that the octadecadienal tentatively identified by a previous GC-MS analysis did indeed have the 2E,13Z configuration. Furthermore, field evaluation of four synthetic geometric isomers of the 2,13-dienal revealed specific attraction to a lure with the (2E,13Z)-isomer as a main component.

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