We postulated that CCR2-driven activation of the transcription factor NF-κB plays a critical role in dendritic cell (DC) maturation (e.g., migration, costimulation, and IL-12p70 production), necessary for the generation of protective immune responses against the intracellular pathogen Leishmania major. Supporting this notion, we found that CCR2, its ligand CCL2, and NF-κB were required for CCL19 production and adequate Langerhans cell (LC) migration both ex vivo and in vivo. Furthermore, a role for CCR2 in upregulating costimulatory molecules was indicated by the reduced expression of CD80, CD86, and CD40 in Ccr2−/− bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) compared with wild-type (WT) BMDCs. Four lines of evidence suggested that CCR2 plays a critical role in the induction of protective immunity against L. major by regulating IL-12p70 production and migration of DC populations such as LCs. First, compared with WT, Ccr2−/− lymph node cells, splenocytes, BMDCs, and LCs produced lower levels of IL-12p70 following stimulation with LPS/IFN-γ or L. major. Second, a reduced number of LCs carried L. major from the skin to the draining lymph nodes in Ccr2−/− mice compared with WT mice. Third, early treatment with exogenous IL-12 reversed the susceptibility to L. major infection in Ccr2−/− mice. Finally, disruption of IL-12p70 in radioresistant cells, such as LCs, but not in BMDCs resulted in the inability to mount a fully protective immune response in bone marrow chimeric mice. Collectively, our data point to an important role for CCR2-driven activation of NF-κB in the regulation of DC/LC maturation processes that regulate protective immunity against intracellular pathogens.

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T-cell expression levels of CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) are a critical determinant of HIV/AIDS susceptibility, and manifest wide variations (i) between T-cell subsets and among individuals and (ii) in T-cell activation-induced increases in expression levels. We demonstrate that a unifying mechanism for this variation is differences in constitutive and T-cell activation-induced DNA methylation status of CCR5 cis-regulatory regions (cis-regions). Commencing at an evolutionarily conserved CpG (CpG −41), CCR5 cis-regions manifest lower vs. higher methylation in T cells with higher vs. lower CCR5 levels (memory vs. naïve T cells) and in memory T cells with higher vs. lower CCR5 levels. HIV-related and in vitro induced T-cell activation is associated with demethylation of these cis-regions. CCR5 haplotypes associated with increased vs. decreased gene/surface expression levels and HIV/AIDS susceptibility magnify vs. dampen T-cell activation-associated demethylation. Methylation status of CCR5 intron 2 explains a larger proportion of the variation in CCR5 levels than genotype or T-cell activation. The ancestral, protective CCR5-HHA haplotype bears a polymorphism at CpG −41 that is (i) specific to southern Africa, (ii ) abrogates binding of the transcription factor CREB1 to this cis-region, and (iii) exhibits a trend for overrepresentation in persons with reduced susceptibility to HIV and disease progression. Genotypes lacking the CCR5-Δ32 mutation but with hypermethylated cis-regions have CCR5 levels similar to genotypes heterozygous for CCR5-Δ32. In HIV-infected individuals, CCR5 cis-regions remain demethylated, despite restoration of CD4+ counts (≥800 cells per mm 3 ) with antiretroviral therapy. Thus, methylation content of CCR5 cis-regions is a central epigenetic determinant of T-cell CCR5 levels, and possibly HIV-related outcomes.HIV | CCR5 | methylation | T-cell activation | polymorphism C C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is the major coreceptor for T-cell entry of HIV-1 (1). CCR5 levels on T cells influence HIV acquisition, disease progression rates, viral load, and immune recovery during antiretroviral therapy (ART), among other traits (1-4) (discussed in ref. 5). In these instances, lower CCR5 levels correlate with beneficial outcomes. Polymorphisms in the ORF and cis-regulatory regions (cis-regions) of CCR5 that correlate with higher vs. lower surface and/or gene expression levels are associated with increased vs. decreased HIV/AIDS risk and immune recovery (4-12). Classic examples are homozygosity Significance Levels of CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) on T cells are a critical factor influencing HIV/AIDS susceptibility. DNA methylation is an epigenetic feature associated with lower gene expression. Here we show that the DNA methylation status of CCR5 cisregulatory regions (cis-regions) correlates inversely with CCR5 levels on T cells. T-cell activation induces demethylation of CCR5 cis-regions, upregulating CCR5 expression. Higher vs. lower sensitivity of CCR5 cis-regions to undergoing T-cell activationinduced...