Biofilms are communities of microorganisms that are attached to a surface and play a significant role in the persistence of bacterial infections. Bacteria within a biofilm are several orders of magnitude more resistant to antibiotics, compared with planktonic bacteria. Thus far, no drugs are in clinical use that specifically target bacterial biofilms. This is probably because until recently the molecular details of biofilm formation were poorly understood. Bacteria integrate information from the environment, such as quorum-sensing autoinducers and nutrients, into appropriate biofilm-related gene expression, and the identity of the key players, such as cyclic dinucleotide second messengers and regulatory RNAs are beginning to be uncovered. Herein, we highlight the current understanding of the processes that lead to biofilm formation in many bacteria.

Interactions of proteins with low-molecular-weight ligands, such as metabolites, cofactors, and allosteric regulators, are important determinants of metabolism, gene regulation, and cellular homeostasis. Pharmaceuticals often target these interactions to interfere with regulatory pathways. We have developed a rapid, precise, and high-throughput method for quantitatively measuring protein-ligand interactions without the need to purify the protein when performed in cells with low background activity. This method, differential radial capillary action of ligand assay (DRaCALA), is based on the ability of dry nitrocellulose to separate the free ligand from bound protein-ligand complexes. Nitrocellulose sequesters proteins and bound ligand at the site of application, whereas free ligand is mobilized by bulk movement of the solvent through capillary action. We show here that DRaCALA allows detection of specific interactions between three nucleotides and their cognate binding proteins. DRaCALA allows quantitative measurement of the dissociation constant and the dissociation rate. Furthermore, DRaCALA can detect the expression of a cyclic-di-GMP (cdiGMP)-binding protein in whole-cell lysates of Escherichia coli, demonstrating the power of the method to bypass the prerequisite for protein purification. We have used DRaCALA to investigate cdiGMP signaling in 54 bacterial species from 37 genera and 7 eukaryotic species. These studies revealed the presence of potential cdiGMP-binding proteins in 21 species of bacteria, including 4 unsequenced species. The ease of obtaining metabolite-protein interaction data using the DRaCALA assay will facilitate rapid identification of protein-metabolite and protein-pharmaceutical interactions in a systematic and comprehensive approach.whole-cell assay I nteractions of low-molecular-weight ligands with protein receptors are critical in biological signaling both between cells and within individual cells. Examples of intercellular signaling mediated by small molecules include quorum signaling in bacteria, hormone and neurotransmitter responses in endocrine systems of animals, and auxin and abscisic acid regulation in plants (1). Intracellular signaling also involves regulatory protein-binding molecules, such as calcium and cyclic nucleotides [e.g., cAMP, cGMP, cyclic-di-GMP (cdiGMP)] (2, 3). In fact, nucleotide receptors are often targets for therapeutic intervention (4). Thus, these protein-small ligand interactions have important implications in modern drug design and use. Considering that many protein-ligand interaction pairs represent potential targets of pharmaceutical intervention in disease or agriculture, there is an urgent need to collect qualitative and quantitative data for such protein-ligand interactions in a highthroughput manner. Current efforts in metabolomics are directed at cataloging the presence of various metabolites through mass spectrometric analysis of biological samples (5-8). However, this approach lacks the ability to confirm interactions with protein partners, and...

For an organism to survive, it must be able to sense its environment and regulate physiological processes accordingly. Understanding how bacteria integrate signals from various environmental factors and quorum sensing autoinducers to regulate the metabolism of various nucleotide second messengers c-di-GMP, c-di-AMP, cGMP, cAMP and ppGpp, which control several key processes required for adaptation is key for efforts to develop agents to curb bacterial infections. In this review, we provide an update of nucleotide signaling in bacteria and show how these signals intersect or integrate to regulate the bacterial phenotype. The intracellular concentrations of nucleotide second messengers in bacteria are regulated by synthases and phosphodiesterases and a significant number of these metabolism enzymes had been biochemically characterized but it is only in the last few years that the effector proteins and RNA riboswitches, which regulate bacterial physiology upon binding to nucleotides, have been identified and characterized by biochemical and structural methods. C-di-GMP, in particular, has attracted immense interest because it is found in many bacteria and regulate both biofilm formation and virulence factors production. In this review, we discuss how the activities of various c-di-GMP effector proteins and riboswitches are modulated upon c-di-GMP binding. Using V. cholerae, E. coli and B. subtilis as models, we discuss how both environmental factors and quorum sensing autoinducers regulate the metabolism and/or processing of nucleotide second messengers. The chemical syntheses of the various nucleotide second messengers and the use of analogs thereof as antibiofilm or immune modulators are also discussed.

This review highlights various methods that can be used for a sensitive detection of nucleic acids without using thermal cycling procedures, as is done in PCR or LCR. Topics included are nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), strand displacement amplification (SDA), loop-mediated amplification (LAMP), Invader assay, rolling circle amplification (RCA), signal mediated amplification of RNA technology (SMART), helicase-dependent amplification (HDA), recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), nicking endonuclease signal amplification (NESA) and nicking endonuclease assisted nanoparticle activation (NENNA), exonuclease-aided target recycling, Junction or Y-probes, split DNAZyme and deoxyribozyme amplification strategies, template-directed chemical reactions that lead to amplified signals, non-covalent DNA catalytic reactions, hybridization chain reactions (HCR) and detection via the self-assembly of DNA probes to give supramolecular structures. The majority of these isothermal amplification methods can detect DNA or RNA in complex biological matrices and have great potential for use at point-of-care.

Split G-rich DNA probes can assemble into active peroxidase-mimicking DNAzymes in the presence of bioanalytes such as DNA, thereby providing a simple and cheap means to detect analytes in biological samples. A comprehensive study designed to reveal the salient probe architectural features and reaction conditions that facilitate facile reconstitution into enzymatically proficient enzymes unveiled these important findings: (a) The loops that connect the G3-tracts in a G-quadruplex structure can be replaced with a stem-loop or loop-stem-loop motif without destabilizing the resulting quadruplex structure; endowing the split G-rich probes with regions of limited complementarity leads to more proficient reconstituted enzymes. (b) The addition of hemin to antiparallel G-quadruplex DNAzymes lead to a blue shift in the CD spectra of the G-quadruplex DNAzymes. (c) The architectures of the DNA motifs that lie adjacent to the G-quadruplex structure influence both the stability and the enzymatic proficiency of the reconstituted enzymes. (d) The nature of the monovalent cation that is present in excess is a key determinant of the turnover number of the G-quadruplex DNAzyme; decomposition of G-quadruplex DNAzymes is slower in buffers that contain ammonium ions than those that contain sodium or potassium ions. These findings are important for the design of bioassays that use peroxidase-mimicking G-quadruplexes as detection labels.

In the biofilm form, bacteria are more resistant to various antimicrobial treatments. Bacteria in a biofilm can also survive harsh conditions and withstand the host's immune system. Therefore, there is a need for new treatment options to treat biofilm-associated infections. Currently, research is focused on the development of antibiofilm agents that are nontoxic, as it is believed that such molecules will not lead to future drug resistance. In this review, we discuss recent discoveries of antibiofilm agents and different approaches to inhibit/disperse biofilms. These new antibiofilm agents, which contain moieties such as imidazole, phenols, indole, triazole, sulfide, furanone, bromopyrrole, peptides, etc. have the potential to disperse bacterial biofilms in vivo and could positively impact human medicine in the future.

Cancer vaccination may be our best and most benign option for preventing or treating metastatic cancer. However, breakthroughs are hampered by immune suppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In this study, we analyzed whether cyclic di-guanylate (c-di-GMP), a ligand for stimulator of interferon genes (STING), could overcome immune suppression and improve vaccination against metastatic breast cancer. Mice with metastatic breast cancer (4T1 model) were therapeutically immunized with an attenuated Listeria monocytogenes (LM)-based vaccine, expressing tumor-associated antigen Mage-b (LM-Mb), followed by multiple low doses of c-di-GMP (0.01 nmol). This resulted in a striking and near elimination of all metastases. Experiments revealed that c-di-GMP targets myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and tumor cells. Low doses of c-di-GMP significantly increased the production of IL-12 by MDSCs, in correlation with improved T-cell responses to Mage-b, while high dose of c-di-GMP (range 15–150 nmol) activated caspase-3 in the 4T1 tumor cells and killed the tumor cells directly. Based on these results we tested one administration of high dose c-di-GMP (150 nmol) followed by repeated administrations of low dose c-di-GMP (0.01 nmol) in the 4T1 model, and found equal efficacy compared to the combination of LM-Mb and c-di-GMP. This correlated with a mechanism of improved CD8 T-cell responses to tumor-associated antigens (TAA) Mage-b and Survivin, most likely through cross-presentation of these TAAs from c-di-GMP-killed 4T1 tumor cells, and through c-di-GMP-activated TAA-specific T cells. Our results demonstrate that activation of STING-dependent pathways by c-di-GMP is highly attractive for cancer immunotherapy.

The bacterial second messenger cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) controls biofilm formation and other phenotypes relevant to pathogenesis. Cyclic-di-GMP is synthesized by diguanylate cyclases (DGCs). Phosphodiesterases (PDE-As) end signaling by linearizing c-di-GMP to 5ʹ-phosphoguanylyl-(3ʹ,5ʹ)-guanosine (pGpG), which is then hydrolyzed to two GMP molecules by yet unidentified enzymes termed PDE-Bs. We show that pGpG inhibits a PDE-A from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In a dual DGC and PDE-A reaction, excess pGpG extends the half-life of c-di-GMP, indicating that removal of pGpG is critical for c-di-GMP homeostasis. Thus, we sought to identify the PDE-B enzyme(s) responsible for pGpG degradation. A differential radial capillary action of ligand assay-based screen for pGpG binding proteins identified oligoribonuclease (Orn), an exoribonuclease that hydrolyzes two-to five-nucleotide-long RNAs. Purified Orn rapidly converts pGpG into GMP. To determine whether Orn is the primary enzyme responsible for degrading pGpG, we assayed cell lysates of WT and Δorn strains of P. aeruginosa PA14 for pGpG stability. The lysates from Δorn showed 25-fold decrease in pGpG hydrolysis. Complementation with WT, but not active site mutants, restored hydrolysis. Accumulation of pGpG in the Δorn strain could inhibit PDE-As, increasing c-di-GMP concentration. In support, we observed increased transcription from the c-di-GMP-regulated pel promoter. Additionally, the c-di-GMP-governed auto-aggregation and biofilm phenotypes were elevated in the Δorn strain in a pel-dependent manner. Finally, we directly detect elevated pGpG and c-di-GMP in the Δorn strain. Thus, we identified that Orn serves as the primary PDE-B enzyme that removes pGpG, which is necessary to complete the final step in the c-di-GMP degradation pathway.cyclic di-GMP | oligoribonuclease | pGpG | PDE-B | nanoRNase