The masticatory pattern of Sphenodon punctatus, the sole remaining rhynchocephalian, now restricted to islands off the coast of New Zealand, has been analyzed by detailed anatomy, cinematography, cinefluoroscopy, and electromyography. Food reduction consists of a closing, crushing bite followed by a propalineal sliding of the dentary row between the maxillary and palatine ones. The large, fleshy tongue can be protruded to pick up small prey, and also plays a major role in prey manipulation. The rotational closing movement of the jaw, supporting the basic crushing movement, is induced by the main adductor musculature. It is followed by a propalineal anterior displacement relying heavily on the action of the M. pterygoideus. The fiber lengths of the several muscles reflect the extent of shortening. The most obvious modification appears in the M. pterygoideus, which contains a central slip of pinnately arranged short fibers that act a period different from that of the rest of the muscle; their action increases the power during the terminal portion of the propalineal phase. This also allows the animal to use its short teeth in an effective shearing bite that cuts fragments off large prey. The action of single cusped dentary teeth acting between the maxillary and palatine tooth rows provides a translational crushing-cutting action that may be an analog of the mammalian molar pattern. However, this strictly fore-aft slide does not incorporate capacity for later development of lateral movement.

The venom glands of several species of elapid snakes are described. The main venom gland consists of many tubules which usually contain large amounts of secretion product. The accessory gland surrounds the entire venom duct and is usually composed of uniform mucous epithelium. The epithelium lining the tubules of the accessory gland of Naja naja is composed of two distinct types of cells. Histochemical tests indicate that the main venom gland reacts with mercury bromphenol blue and PAS but not with alcian blue. The accessory gland reacts with PAS and alcian blue, and not with mercury bromphenol blue. Treatment of sections with sialidase demonstrates the presence of a sialomucin in the accessory gland. Stimulation of the muscles associated with the venom gland offers an indication of the venom expulsion mechanism of Bungurus cueruleus. A comparison of the venom apparatus of elapid and viperid snakes emphasizes marked differences in the internal anatomy of the venom glands, muscles associated with the gland, and arrangement of glandular components. The morphological differences and dissimilar venom expulsion mechanisms support the recent view of the polyphyletic origin of venomous snakes.Renewed interest in morphology and function of the ophidian venom apparatus has resulted in several reports dealing with the histology and histochemistry of the venom gland of viperid snakes. These recent investigations utilized several species of viperine (Gans and Kochva, '65; Kochva and Gans, '66a, '67) and crotaline snakes (Gennaro et al., '60, '63; Odor and Gennaro, '60; Odor, '65; Kochva and Gans, '66b).The venom apparatus of elapid snakes has not been recently investigated. Our knowledge of elapid venom glands is based on the works of Emery (1875), Wests(1898), Bobeau ('13, '34, '35a,b, '36, '42), Phisalix ('22), Radovanovid ('28), and Bzowski ('35). These authors utilized histological techniques, as did others whose studies are reviewed in the monographs of Noguchi ('09), Phisalix ('22), and Fahrenholz ('37).The new findings reported for the viperid venom apparatus and the absence of any recent work on elapid venom glands suggested an examination of the venom apparatus in the latter. The present work describes the morphology and histology of some eIapid venom glands, offers preliminary histochemical results, and reports on a functional analysis of the emptying J. MORPH., 123: 133-156. mechanism of the venom gland. The venom glands of elapid and viperid snakes are compared. MATERIALS AND METHODSMost of the gross dissections were done on specimens of Bungarus fasciatus (B. fasciatus) from Thailand. Histological and histochemical techniques were carried out on sections of whole heads and extirpated venom glands of several species of elapids (table 1 ) . Specimens with CG numbers are deposited in the collection of Carl Gans, Department of Biology, State University of New York at Buffalo. TAU specimens are in the collection of the Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. Serial sections of venom glands from two species of...

The functional anatomy of pulmonary ventilation in Thtrmnophis e k g u n s was studied by electromyography. Flow of air into and out of the lungs follows a triphasic pattern and occurs while the glottis is held open by a dilator muscle. Non-ventilatory rest periods characterized by a closed glottis and lack of ventilatory movements occur between breaths. Exhalation is caused by contraction of a pair of dorso-lateral sheets of muscle that extends from the ventral surface of the vertebral column to the medial surfaces of the ribs and a pair of ventro-lateral sheets that extends from the medial surfaces of the ribs to the mid-ventral skin. Inspiration is powered by contraction of a series of rib levators and retractors. The last phase of the ventilatory cycle is a passive expiration that may be caused by elastic recoil of the walls of the filled lungs and relzxation of muscles used during inspiration. The site of respiratory pumping is shifted craniad after large prey items have been completely ingested. The significance of this shift and its anatomical basis are considered.

The feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus) is a mouse-sized marsupial that can cling to and run on smooth vertical panes of glass. To understand this remarkable ability, a comparative histological study of pads on the volar surface of the pes and manus of four species of marsupials was completed. Acrobates pygmaeus and Cercartetus concinnus have well-developed volar pads that consist of epidermal ridge - sweat gland complexes. Such pads are less developed in Tarsipes rostratus and are not externally visible in Sminthopsis crassicaudata. In addition to its possible role in capillary adhesion, the epidermal ridge - sweat gland complex of A. pygmaeus has a unique epidermal histo-architecture. Here, the stratum corneum consists of horizontal rows of cell remnants that do not become flattened or adpressed to form a stratified squamous epithelium. It is proposed that the tall stratum corneum resists shear and compression that develop when the feathertail glider completes a glide.

The exocrine secretion of the "stinkpot turtle," Sternotherus odoratus, discharged by the animals in response to disturbance, contains four omega-phenylalkanoic acids (phenylacetic, 3-phenylpropionic, 5-phenylpentanoic, and 7-phenylheptanoic). The last two of these are new natural products. The first two are powerfully malodorous and responsible for the stench of the fluid. Lesser components, including several aliphatic acids, are also present. Only a few milligrams of secretion are discharged by a turtle at any one time. Although bioassays with fish suggest that the secretion has the potential to serve as a feeding deterrent to predators, it is argued that Sternotherus does not ordinarily discharge enough fluid to effect this action and may employ its secretion only as an aposematic signal that warns predators of its more generalized undesirability.