Crop diversity is central to traditional risk management practices on the Andean Altiplano and may find renewed importance in adapting to climate change. This study explored the role of crop diversity in farmers' adaptation actions in eight Aymara communities on the northern Bolivian Altiplano. Using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, including multifactor analysis and a community resilience selfassessment, we investigated how farmers' use of diversity in adaptation is related to their perceptions of crop and variety tolerances and other environmental, social, and economic factors. Few crops and varieties were perceived as tolerant to increasingly intense and unpredictable drought, frost, hail, and pest and disease outbreaks. Some local crops and varieties were perceived as vulnerable to emerging conditions (e.g. oca, papalisa, isaño), whereas bitter potatoes and wild relatives of quinoa and cañahua were perceived as highly stress tolerant and provide food in harsh periods. A total 19% of households surveyed (N = 193) had introduced new crops or varieties-often disease resistant or early maturing-as an adaptive action. Introduction of commercial crops was a common adaptation action, reflecting farmers' response to warming temperatures and changing economic opportunities, but greater sensitivity of the introduced crops may cause maladaptation. Despite intensification of cropping systems, households continue to maintain a median four potato varieties with different tolerance traits, yet this risk management practice was not perceived as adaptation. Strengthening resilience will require a combination of actions, including maintaining and expanding crop portfolios and restoring soil and ecosystem health, using both traditional and innovative approaches.
Integrated water management is complex and requires the participation of diverse actors to identify and implement transformative solutions. However, power relations can obstruct the more inclusive and equitable experiences of participatory approaches, hence limiting the empowerment of vulnerable groups. It is thus important to study how power relations are influenced by people's interests, socio-political structures, and knowledge in the process of (co)creation of water policies. We use a case study in a rural municipality of Bolivia to address this issue. Qualitative data were collected between 2017 and 2020 and analysed using the elements of the Power Cube of Gaventa as the analytical framework. Results confirm that different factors influence power relations in the making of a water policy such as interests, access to information, habits, and customs. Actors use different forms, spaces, and levels of power to achieve their interests. Our results show the importance and need to analyse power relations prior, during and after the (co)creation of any public policy and to step away from linear and sectoral frameworks of policy development.
The capacity of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) to adapt to and co-evolve with changes in its socioecological system (SES) is well known. However, insights are needed to understand if and how TEK´s spiritual, social, and ecological dimensions relate to each other. Our paper contributes to this broader question by identifying the main socioecological factors that impact the transmission of TEK within and across generations and by exploring how the co-evolution of TEK with its socioecological system can be strengthened. Based on both quantitative and qualitative data on the traditional ways of weather forecasting in a rural area of Bolivia, we found four factors affecting TEK transmission: formal education, migration, a new religion, and the politicization of rural unions. Despite the slow disappearance of TEK, we also found that interest in TEK can be refreshed through the co-creation of hybrid knowledge. Response to Reviewers:We appreciate the opportunity to address the comments on our manuscript HUEC-D-21-00364, previously entitled: Traditional ecological knowledge. New agricultures, new religions, new education. We are grateful for the reviewers' positive and valuable comments throughout this process and are confident that the comments have been addressed in our renewed manuscript. We dealt with the comments and sent already a newer version of the manuscript on July 8th by mail since we did not get further instructions. However, on August 25th we got a response through the platform with the same suggestions as the first time. This situation confused us. Hence, we focused on shortening the document. We attached to the manuscript a rebuttal letter showing how we have dealt with the comments of the reviewers. We trust that the changes introduced have improved the manuscript considerably, and we hope that it can be published soon.
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