Recent years have substantially broadened our view on the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). While earlier concepts focused predominantly on T lymphocytes as the key cell type to mediate inflammatory damage within central nervous system (CNS) lesions, emerging evidence suggests that B lymphocytes may play a comparably important role both as precursors of antibody-secreting plasma cells and as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for the activation of T cells. With greater appreciation of this pathogenic B-cell function in MS, B-cell-directed therapies, and in particular B-cell-depleting monoclonal antibodies targeting the CD20 molecule, have gained enormous interest over recent years. Clinical trials demonstrated that anti-CD20 treatment, which depletes immature and mature B cells but spares CD20 negative plasma cells, rapidly reduces formation of new inflammatory CNS lesions. While these findings clearly corroborate a pathogenic contribution of B cells, recent experimental but also clinical findings indicate that not all B cells contribute in an equally pathogenic manner and that certain subsets may in contrast mediate anti-inflammatory effects. In this review, we summarize current findings in support of pathogenic B-cell function in MS, including the encouraging clinical data which derived from anti-CD20 MS trials. Further, we review novel findings suggestive of regulatory properties of B-cell subsets which may be collaterally abolished by pan-CD20 depletion. In conclusion, we aim to provide an outlook on how this currently differentiating concept of pro-and anti-inflammatory B-cell function could be harnessed to further improve safety and effectiveness of B-cell-directed therapeutic approaches in MS.
Background: In MS, the relationship between lesions within cerebral white matter (WM) and atrophy within deep gray matter (GM) is unclear. Objective: To investigate the spatial relationship between WM lesions and deep GM atrophy. Methods: We performed a cross-sectional structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study (3 Tesla) in 249 patients with clinically-isolated syndrome or relapsing-remitting MS (Expanded Disability Status Scale score: median, 1.0; range, 0-4) and in 49 healthy controls. Preprocessing of T1-weighted and fluid-attenuated T2-weighted images resulted in normalized GM images and WM lesion probability maps. We performed two voxel-wise analyses: 1. We localized GM atrophy and confirmed that it is most pronounced within deep GM; 2. We searched for a spatial relationship between WM lesions and deep GM atrophy; to this end we analyzed WM lesion probability maps by voxel-wise multiple regression, including four variables derived from maxima of regional deep GM atrophy (caudate and pulvinar, each left and right). Results: Atrophy of each deep GM region was explained by ipsilateral WM lesion probability, in the area most densely connected to the respective deep GM region. Conclusion: We demonstrated that WM lesions and deep GM atrophy are spatially related. Our results are best compatible with the hypothesis that WM lesions contribute to deep GM atrophy through axonal pathology.
Recent years have broadened the spectrum of therapeutic strategies and specific agents for treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). While immune-modulating drugs remain the first-line agents for MS predominantly due to their benign safety profile, our growing understanding of key processes in initiation and progression of MS has pioneered development of new agents with specific targets. One concept of these novel drugs is to hamper migration of immune cells towards the affected central nervous system (CNS). The first oral drug approved for MS therapy, fingolimod inhibits egress of lymphocytes from lymph nodes; the monoclonal antibody natalizumab prevents inflammatory CNS infiltration by blocking required adhesion molecules. The second concept is to deplete T cells and/or B cells from the peripheral circulation using highly specific monoclonal antibodies such as alemtuzumab (anti-CD52) or rituximab/ocrelizumab (anti-CD20). All of these novel, highly effective agents are a substantial improvement in our therapeutic armamentarium; however, they have in common to potentially lower the abundance of immune cells within the CNS, thereby collaterally affecting immune surveillance within this well-controlled compartment. In this review, we aim to critically evaluate the risk/benefit ratio of therapeutic strategies in treatment of MS with a specific focus on infectious neurological side effects.
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