Of the five known dopamine receptors, DlA and D2 represent the major subtypes expressed in the striatum of the adult brain. Within the striatum, these two subtypes are differentially distributed in the two main neuronal populations that provide direct and indirect pathways between the striatum and the output nuclei ofthe basal ganglia. Movement The pivotal role played by dopamine receptors in the pathophysiology and treatment ofParkinson disease (1) and schizophrenia (2) and in the mode of action of addictive drugs such as amphetamine and cocaine (3, 4) is well established. Of the five known dopamine receptor subtypes (5), the DlA and D2 receptors account for the vast majority of dopamine receptors (6) expressed in the striatum. The DlA (also known as D, in the primate system) and D2 receptor subtypes are expressed mainly by spiny projection neurons, which account for 90-95% of the striatal neuron population (7). These striatal neurons may be subdivided into two major types on the basis of their axonal projections. One type provides a direct projection to the output nuclei of the basal ganglia: the substantia nigra and entopeduncular nucleus (the internal segment of the globus pallidus in primates). The other type provides projections to the globus pallidus (the external segment of the primate globus pallidus). As this latter type is connected indirectly to the output nuclei of the basal ganglia through connections with the subthalamic nucleus, the two output pathways are referred to as the direct and indirect output systems. Striatal neurons giving rise to the direct pathway express high levels of the DlA dopamine receptor subtype and the neuropeptides substance P and dynorphin, whereas neurons giving rise to the indirect pathway express high levels of the D2 dopamine receptor and the peptide enkephalin (7). The levels of peptide expression in these neurons provide an assay oftheir activity (7), as neuropeptide levels correlated with fuing rates in target neurons (1).Current models suggest that imbalanced activity in the direct and indirect pathways is responsible for clinical movement disorders (8). A number of studies have demonstrated that dopamine oppositely effects these two output pathways through their differential expression ofthe DlA and D2 receptors (7). For example, depletion of striatal dopamine with lesions of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway in animal models of Parkinson disease results in reduced expression of substance P in direct output neurons and increased enkephalin expression in indirect striatal output neurons. Moreover, these changes may be selectively reversed with selective dopamine receptor agonist treatments, so that D1 agonist treatment normalizes substance P levels whereas D2 agonist treatment normalizes enkephalin levels (9). While these studies have demonstrated the differential role of DlA and D2 receptors in striatal function, important questions concerning the interaction between these neuronal pathways remain. To provide an experimental animal model to address the...

ABSTRACTderived from the 129/sv strain (Clontech) was screened using a mouse D3 cDNA probe (17). A positive clone encompassing exon 2 of the murine D3 gene was isolated and further characterized. A 7-kb Xho I-Asp718 fragment was engineered for targeted mutagenesis by introducing the GKNeo cassette (16) in antisense orientation at the Sal I site in exon 2 (17). Integration of sequences derived from the pGKNeo cassette generates a novel open reading frame, resulting in the following peptide sequence appended after Arg-148: PASDGIRT-WQNNTENEVYVEQRLLISFFRL Opal (Stop). The sequence of the mutant allele was confirmed by direct sequencing of reverse transcription-PCR (rPCR) products derived from brain mRNAs of -/-and +/-mice (data not shown).Transfection ofES Cells and Embryo Manipulations. J-1 ES cells (a kind gift of R. Jaenisch, Massachussetts Institute of Technology) at passage 13 were grown on mitomycin C-treated embryonic fibroblasts derived from a homozygous neomycin (Neo)-resistant transgenic mouse (16). Cells (2 x 107) were electroporated in a 1-ml cuvette (path length-0.2 cm) at 0.4 kV and 25 ,uF. Cells were plated onto 40 gelatin-coated Petri dishes (6 cm) on embryonic feeder cells. Selection with G418 (0.3 mg/ml; active concentration of 0.66 ,vg/mg of dry powder; GIBCO) was applied 24 hr after plating and was continued for 7-9 days. Individual Neo-resistant colonies were picked using a dissection microscope and expanded as described (16). Genomic DNA was prepared from an aliquot of cells for each clone using previously described techniques and analyzed by Southern blotting (18). Recovery, microinjection, and transfer of 3.5 day postcoitus embryos was performed as described (16).

Projection neurons in the striatum give rise to two output systems, the "direct" and "indirect" pathways, which antagonistically regulate basal ganglia output. While all striatal projection neurons utilize GABA as their principal neurotransmitter, they express different opioid peptide co-transmitters and also different dopamine receptor subtypes. Neurons of the direct pathway express the peptide dynorphin and the D1 dopamine receptor, whereas indirect pathway neurons express the peptide enkephalin and the D2 receptor. In the present review, we summarize our findings on the function of dynorphin and enkephalin in these striatal output pathways. In these studies, we used D1- or D2-receptor-mediated induction of immediate-early genes as a cellular response in direct or indirect projection neurons, respectively, to investigate the role of these opioid peptides. Our results suggest that the specific function of dynorphin and enkephalin is to dampen excessive activation of these neurons by dopamine and other neurotransmitters. Levels of these opioid peptides are elevated by repeated, excessive activation of these pathways, which appears to be an adaptive or compensatory response. Behavioral consequences of increased opioid peptide function in striatal output pathways may include behavioral sensitization (dynorphin) and recovery of motor function (enkephalin).

Enkephalins are endogenous opioid peptides that are derived from a pre-proenkephalin precursor protein. They are thought to be vital in regulating many physiological functions, including pain perception and analgesia, responses to stress, aggression and dominance. Here we have used a genetic approach to study the role of the mammalian opioid system. We disrupted the pre-proenkephalin gene using homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells to generate enkephalin-deficient mice. Mutant enk-/- animals are healthy, fertile, and care for their offspring, but display significant behavioural abnormalities. Mice with the enk-/- genotype are more anxious and males display increased offensive aggressiveness. Mutant animals show marked differences from controls in supraspinal, but not in spinal, responses to painful stimuli. Unexpectedly, enk-/- mice exhibit normal stress-induced analgesia. Our results show that enkephalins modulate responses to painful stimuli. Thus, genetic factors may contribute significantly to the experience of pain.

The effects of the indirect dopamine receptor agonist cocaine in the striatum on levels of mRNAs of the immediate-early gene c-fos and the neuropeptides dynorphin, substance P, and enkephalin were analyzed with quantitative in situ hybridization histochemistry. Both single (acute) and repeated (twice a day for 4 d) systemic injections of cocaine (3.75-30 mg/kg) to rats resulted in dose-dependent, regionally specific elevations of mRNA expression in striatal neurons. A single drug treatment elevated c-fos mRNA expression, whereas repeated treatments resulted in little c-fos expression but elevated dynorphin mRNA levels. Both the regional and temporal patterns of gene expression revealed an inverse relationship between dynorphin and c-fos expression. This relationship was examined in a time course experiment in which cocaine (30 mg/kg) was administered for 1, 2, 3 or 4 d. Basal levels of dynorphin expression were relatively high in the ventral striatum, including the nucleus accumbens, a ventrolateral region, and an area along the medial bank of the striatum. A single injection of cocaine induced c-fos mRNA in striatal areas with low basal expression of dynorphin. Thus, c-fos mRNA induction was highest in the dorsal central striatum, where basal dynorphin mRNA levels were lowest. In this region, dynorphin mRNA expression increased on subsequent treatment days parallel to diminished c-fos mRNA induction. Changes in substance P. mRNA levels appeared to match directly both the temporal and regional patterns of c-fos induction. Enkephalin mRNA expression was altered, but only slightly, by these cocaine treatments. Statistical analysis of the regional patterns of basal and altered mRNA levels shows a unique inverse relationship between basal dynorphin expression and c-fos induction by cocaine. Further evidence of this relationship is provided by the dose-dependent blockade of cocaine-induced c-fos expression by spiradoline, a dynorphin agonist. Together, these results suggest that the restricted regional pattern of cocaine-induced c-fos expression is related, in part, to the basal level of dynorphin expression, and that cocaine treatment elevates dynorphin expression in striatal regions with a strong c-fos response, thereby limiting subsequent c-fos induction by cocaine. These findings lead to the hypothesis that dynorphin acts to regulate the responsiveness of striatal neurons to dopamine stimulation.

Psychostimulants alter gene expression in projection neurons of the striatum, and such neuroplasticity is implicated in drug addiction and dependence. Evidence indicates that excitatory inputs from the cortex and thalamus are critical for these molecular changes. In the present study, we determined the topography of cocaine-induced changes in gene expression in the rat striatum and investigated whether these molecular alterations are associated with particular cortical inputs. Acute induction of c-fos (by 25 mg/kg of cocaine), and the c-fos response and dynorphin expression after repeated cocaine treatment (25 mg/kg, 4 days) were assessed as examples for short-term and longer-term molecular changes, respectively. In addition, we examined whether these molecular effects were influenced by the behaviour performed during cocaine action (running-wheel training vs. open field). Our results demonstrate that the overall topography of cocaine-induced gene regulation in the striatum is remarkably stable. Both acute and longer-term molecular changes were maximal in caudal dorsal striatal sectors that receive convergent inputs from the medial agranular and the sensorimotor cortex. In contrast, relatively minor or no effects were found in rostral and ventral striatal sectors. However, running-wheel training under the influence of cocaine enhanced the c-fos response to a subsequent cocaine challenge selectively in parts of the caudal sensorimotor striatum. These results indicate that cocaine produces molecular adaptations preferentially in cortico-basal ganglia circuits through the sensorimotor striatum, and that some of these neuronal changes are influenced by the behaviour performed during drug exposure.

Disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) is a mental illness gene first identified in a Scottish pedigree. So far, DISC1-dependent phenotypes in animal models have been confined to expressing mutant DISC1. Here we investigated how pathology of full-length DISC1 protein could be a major mechanism in sporadic mental illness. We demonstrate that a novel transgenic rat model, modestly overexpressing the full-length DISC1 transgene, showed phenotypes consistent with a significant role of DISC1 misassembly in mental illness. The tgDISC1 rat displayed mainly perinuclear DISC1 aggregates in neurons. Furthermore, the tgDISC1 rat showed a robust signature of behavioral phenotypes that includes amphetamine supersensitivity, hyperexploratory behavior and rotarod deficits, all pointing to changes in dopamine (DA) neurotransmission. To understand the etiology of the behavioral deficits, we undertook a series of molecular studies in the dorsal striatum of tgDISC1 rats. We observed an 80% increase in high-affinity DA D2 receptors, an increased translocation of the dopamine transporter to the plasma membrane and a corresponding increase in DA inflow as observed by cyclic voltammetry. A reciprocal relationship between DISC1 protein assembly and DA homeostasis was corroborated by in vitro studies. Elevated cytosolic dopamine caused an increase in DISC1 multimerization, insolubility and complexing with the dopamine transporter, suggesting a physiological mechanism linking DISC1 assembly and dopamine homeostasis. DISC1 protein pathology and its interaction with dopamine homeostasis is a novel cellular mechanism that is relevant for behavioral control and may have a role in mental illness.

Cannabis use during adolescence is associated with an increased risk for schizophrenia and other disorders. The neuronal basis is unclear, but prefrontal cortical mechanisms have been implicated. Here, we investigated developmental changes in the endocannabinoid system by assessing expression and function of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor in prefrontal and other cortical areas in juvenile (postnatal day 25, P25), adolescent (P40) and adult (P70) rats. Overall, the expression of CB1 receptors in the cortex is highest in juveniles and drops thereafter towards adult levels. However, CB1 receptor expression follows distinct developmental trajectories in different cortical areas. The most pronounced and progressive decrease in CB1 expression was observed in medial prefrontal and other limbic/associative regions. In contrast, major changes in sensorimotor cortices occurred only after P40. We also assessed electrophysiological measures of CB1 receptor function and found that CB1-dependent inhibition of synaptic transmission in the prefrontal cortex follows the same developmental trajectory as observed for receptor expression. Together, these findings indicate that CB1 receptor-mediated signaling decreases during development, but is differentially regulated in limbic/associative vs. sensorimotor systems. Therefore, cannabis use during adolescence likely differentially affects limbic/associative and sensorimotor cortical circuits.