In plant-microbe interactions, plant sugars produced by photosynthesis are not only a carbon source for pathogens, but may also act as signals that modulate plant defense responses. Here, we report that decreasing sorbitol synthesis in apple () leaves by antisense suppression of () leads to downregulation of 56 () genes and converts the phenotypic response to from resistant to susceptible. We identified a resistance protein encoded by the apple gene and a small protein encoded by the fungal gene that interact in both a yeast two-hybrid assay and a bimolecular fluorescence complementation assay. Deletion of in enables gain of virulence on the wild-type control plant. Overexpression of in two antisense lines increases resistance, whereas RNAi suppression of in the wild-type control decreases resistance against MdWRKY79 transcriptionally regulates by binding to the promoter of in response to sorbitol, and exogenous sorbitol feeding partially restores resistance of the antisense lines to These findings indicate that sorbitol modulates resistance to via the MdNLR16 protein that interacts with the fungal effector in a classic gene-for-gene manner in apple.

Recognition of specific molecule signatures of microbes, including pathogens, induces innate immune responses in plants, as well as in animals. Analogously, a nematode pheromone, the ascaroside ascr#18, induces hallmark plant defences including activation of (a) mitogen‐activated protein kinases, (b) salicylic acid‐ and jasmonic acid‐mediated defence signalling pathways and (c) defence gene expression and provides protection to a broad spectrum of pathogens. Ascr#18 is a member of an evolutionarily conserved family of nematode signalling molecules and is the major ascaroside secreted by plant–parasitic nematodes. Here, we report the effects of ascr#18 on resistance in four of the major economically important crops: maize, rice, wheat and soybean to some of their associated pathogens. Treatment with low nanomolar to low micromolar concentrations of ascr#18 provided from partial to strong protection in seven of eight plant–pathogen systems tested with viruses, bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and nematodes. This research may have potential to improve agricultural sustainability by reducing use of potentially harmful agrochemicals and enhance food security worldwide.

The objective of this study was to investigate the association between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and earnings transparency of Korean companies. Transparency is one of key principles of CSR activities. We will focus on accounting transparency as accounting provides fundamental financial information about a company.Our results showed that companies with superior CSR activities had higher earnings transparency. This suggests that the more a company performs CSR, the more it gets trust from market participants on earnings information. We tested whether continuance of CSR commitments could affect the level of transparency. Our results revealed found that a company with a longer period of CSR activities had higher earnings transparency. This implies that CSR activities on ongoing-basis encourage a company to disclose its information to outside stockholders in an open way. K E Y W O R D S corporate social responsibility, earnings transparency, KEJI index

In Brachypodium distachyon, the GRAS family transcriptional regulator RAM1 is partially required for arbuscule development and when overexpressed, increases arbuscule density

A protein factor and its binding site involved in light-responsive gene expression of Arabidopsis thaliana cab1 were investigated. Mobility shift assays were performed to identify a nuclear protein factor and its binding sites on the cab1 promoter. For the binding assay, the Arabidopsis cab1 promoter was cleaved with endonucleases into small fragments (65-200 bp) and end-labeled with Klenow fragments. Nuclei were prepared from the light-grown plants and nuclear proteins were prepared by extracting the purified nuclei with 0.5 M ammonium sulfate. The binding site of the nuclear protein factor was scattered throughout the whole promoter region from the transcription start site to the far upstream region of the promoter. To identify the binding sites that are involved in the light responsiveness, mobility shift assays were performed between the cab1 promoter fragments and the nuclear extracts prepared from the 2 day dark-adapted sample. The mobility shift assay of the 65 bp (-318/ -254) fragment with nuclear extract from the dark-adapted sample showed an additional band, not seen with the light-grown sample. Because the new band was present only in the dark-adapted sample that repressed cab1 expression, it may represent a negative regulatory factor (NRF). The NRF was separable on a heparin-Sepharose column from the other factor present in both the light-grown and dark-adapted samples. The implications of the presence of the NRF have been discussed with respect to gene products of the photosignal transduction Arabidopsis mutants.

23Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is a mutually beneficial association of plants and fungi of the 24 sub-phylum Glomeromycotina. The endosymbiotic AM fungi colonize the inner cortical cells of the 25 roots, where they form branched hyphae called arbuscules that function in nutrient exchange with the 26 plant. To support arbuscule development and subsequently bidirectional nutrient exchange, the root 27 cortical cells undergo substantial transcriptional re-programming. REDUCED ARBUSCULAR 28 MYCORRHIZA 1 (RAM1), studied in several dicot plant species, is a major regulator of this cortical cell 29 transcriptional program. Here, we generated ram1 mutants and RAM1 overexpressors in a monocot, 30Brachypodium distachyon. The AM phenotypes of two ram1 lines revealed that RAM1 is only partly 31 required to enable arbuscule development in B. distachyon. Transgenic lines constitutively 32 overexpressing BdRAM1 showed constitutive expression of AM-inducible genes even in the shoots. 33Following inoculation with AM fungi, BdRAM1-overexpressing roots showed higher arbuscule densities 34 relative to controls, indicating the potential to manipulate the relative proportion of symbiotic 3 et al., 2017). Thus, there are slight differences in regulation of AM symbiosis genes even between 71 relatively closely related plant species (Pimprikar and Gutjahr, 2018). 73Several other GRAS proteins are essential for AM symbiosis including DELLA/SLR1, a negative regulator 74 of GA signaling (Floss et al., 2013; Foo et al., 2013;Yu et al., 2014;Floss et al., 2017). In della mutants, 75AM fungi show a severely reduced ability to enter cortical cells, and as a result almost no arbuscules 76 are formed (Floss et al., 2013; Foo et al., 2013;Yu et al., 2014). Arbuscules are ephemeral structures, 77 and the few arbuscules that are formed in della mutants display an increased lifespan, indicating that 78 DELLA not only regulates arbuscule formation but also their degradation (Floss et al., 2017). Two other 79 GRAS transcription factors critical for hormone signaling and AM symbiosis are NSP1 and NSP2. These 80 transcription factors regulate phosphate-dependent strigolactone (SL) biosynthesis in M. truncatula 81 and rice (Liu et al., 2011). SLs serve as direct plant communication molecules with AM fungi at the 82 onset of the symbiosis. Mutants impaired in NSP or enzymes required for SL biosynthesis show a 83 reduction in fungal entry into the root and consequently reduced colonization (Gomez-Roldan et al., 84 2008; Liu et al., 2011; Kobae et al., 2018). Thus, there are several examples of GRAS factors that 85 connect hormone signaling and AM symbiosis. 87Many GRAS factors operate in complexes with other GRAS proteins and emerging evidence suggests 88 that this is also true of those involved in AM symbiosis. M. truncatula and L. japonicus RAM1 were 89 reported to interact with RAD1 and NSP2 (which also interact with each other), but not NSP1 (Gobbato et al., 2012;Park et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2015; Heck et al., 2016). In addition, rice RAM1 in...

The cover image, by Daniel F. Klessig et al., is based on the Original Article Nematode ascaroside enhances resistance in a broad spectrum of plant–pathogen systems. DOI: . Photo credit: Cover image © Aardra Kachroo University of Kentucky Images