Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are particles naturally released from cells that are delimited by a lipid bilayer and are unable to replicate. How the EVs cross the Blood–Brain barrier (BBB) in a bidirectional manner between the bloodstream and brain parenchyma remains poorly understood. Most in vitro models that have evaluated this event have relied on monolayer transwell or microfluidic organ-on-a-chip techniques that do not account for the combined effect of all cellular layers that constitute the BBB at different sites of the Central Nervous System. There has not been direct transcytosis visualization through the BBB in mammals in vivo, and evidence comes from in vivo experiments in zebrafish. Literature is scarce on this topic, and techniques describing the mechanisms of EVs motion through the BBB are inconsistent. This review will focus on in vitro and in vivo methodologies used to evaluate EVs transcytosis, how EVs overcome this fundamental structure, and discuss potential methodological approaches for future analyses to clarify these issues. Understanding how EVs cross the BBB will be essential for their future use as vehicles in pharmacology and therapeutics.

BackgroundChromosomal region 7q21.3 comprises approximately 5.2 mega base pairs that include genes DLX5/6, SHFM1, and DYNC1I1 associated with split hand/split foot malformation 1. So far, there are reports of eight families with deletion of DYNC1I1 and preserved DLX5/6 associated with ectrodactyly. From these families, only three patients did not present ectrodactyly and, unlike our patient, no other cases have been described as having craniofacial dysmorphology, mitral valve prolapse, kyphoscoliosis, inguinal herniae, or personality disorder. There is no designation described in the literature for patients with syndromic manifestations without ectrodactyly, which hinders diagnosis.Case presentationWe report the case of a 44-year-old mestizo (combined European and Amerindian descent) man with a 3191 kilo base pairs deletion and International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature array 7q21.3 (93,389,222-96,579,845)x1. Clinical manifestations included micrognathia, retrognathia, wormian bones, auditory canal stenosis, depressed nasal bridge, epicanthal fold, fullness of upper eyelid, long philtrum, low-set ears, sensorineural hearing loss, kyphoscoliosis, bilateral inguinal herniae, mild mitral valve prolapse, and paranoid personality disorder. His isolated DNA was analyzed using a CytoScan HD Microarray system. Chromosome Analysis Suite software was utilized for the microarray analysis. All copy number changes were determined using the human genome build 19 (hg19/NCBI build 37).ConclusionsCases of deletions within chromosome 7q21.3 that include the split hand/split foot malformation 1 region represent a diagnostic challenge when not presenting ectrodactyly despite being syndromic. Due to the heterogeneity of the region, a better method to group and classify these patients is needed to facilitate their clinical diagnosis. For this purpose, we suggest that patients with 7q21.3 deletion including DYNC1I1 and preserved DLX5/6 without ectrodactyly, accompanied by craniofacial dysmorphology, personality disorder, hearing loss, musculoskeletal disorder, inguinal herniae and/or mitral valve prolapse be referred to by the eponym Ramos–Martínez syndrome.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13256-016-0921-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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El nominado al Premio Nobel de la Paz 2022, Dr. Peter J. Hotez, es uno de los mayores exponentes internacionales en el desarrollo de vacunas, promotor de terapias para el manejo de las llamadas Enfermedades Tropicales Desatendidas y defensor del concepto de diplomacia en relación a la ciencia de vacunas. El Dr. Hotez es decano de la Escuela Nacional de Medicina Tropical, profesor de pediatría, virología molecular y microbiología de la Escuela de Medicina de Baylor, codirector del Centro para el Desarrollo de Vacunas para Niños de Texas y sirvió como Enviado Científico de los Estados Unidos durante la administración del presidente Obama para proyectos de diplomacia de vacunas en el Medio Oriente y África del Norte. Estos antecedes son relevantes para comprender el contexto de redacción de un libro que analiza, desde una perspectiva autobiográfica, cómo enfrentarse a los retos más grandes de las relaciones internacionales y los conflictos mundiales a la hora de abordar temas de ciencia que impactan la salud de las personas.