ABSTRACT. Objective: Most cognitive models of substance abuse and dependence posit that controlled and automatic processes are central to substance use. Tests of these models rely on methods that are interpreted to measure one or the other of these processes. There has been growing interest in the use of implicit substance use tasks, which are posited to refl ect automatic processes. Recent model advancements suggest that behavior is determined by multiple cognitive processes and that dualprocess models may provide an overly simplistic account of the cognitive process involved in the assessment of implicit cognition. The goal of the current study was to apply the Quad Model to children's performance on implicit substance use tasks and consider associations with early substance use. Method: Children (N = 378; 52% girls) ranging from 10 to 12 years old completed alcohol and cigarette Single Category Implicit Association Tests (SC-IATs) and self-reports of substance use. Results: Four distinct cognitive processes were found to infl uence SC-IAT performance, one of which refl ected automatic activation, the process typically viewed as central to IAT performance. Differences across drinking status revealed weaker automatic activation of negative alcohol associations for those who had (vs. had not) initiated drinking, and a strong likelihood to overcome biased attitudes was supported for all children. The low prevalence of cigarette use in our young sample prohibited examination of the model across smoking status. Conclusions: Findings suggest that performance on implicit substance use tasks is not process pure. Quantifying and interpreting the multiple infl uencing processes are crucial for further development and evaluation of cognitive risk models of substance use. (J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs, 73, 134-143, 2012)

Objective: Cannabis users with a dysregulatory risk factor may be particularly vulnerable to engaging in more frequent and problematic cannabis use. Contemporary models of dysregulated behavior suggest that dysregulation emerges due to distinct mechanisms. The current study seeks to examine the dysregulatory correlates of cannabis involvement, including working memory capacity, delay discounting, impulsivity, and reward sensitivity.Method: Participants were 104 non-treatment seeking frequent cannabis users (the average participant used cannabis 71% of the days/past 60 days [SD= 22%], with an average of two uses per day [SD= 1.2]). Mean age was 21.3 (SD= 4.3); 36.5% were female. Working memory was assessed via the Trail-Making Test-B and the Digit Span subtests of the WAIS-III, delay discounting was assessed via a computer-based task, trait impulsivity was self-reported via the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and reward sensitivity was self-reported via the Reward Dependence Scale and the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale.Results: Structural equation modeling estimated the associations between different facets of dysregulation and cannabis involvement. Results suggest that poor working memory capacity and high trait impulsivity were associated with both use and problem use. Greater delay discounting was associated with problem use, but not with frequency of use. Low reward sensitivity was associated with more frequent cannabis use, but not with problem use. Conclusions:Results confirm that the dysregulatory correlates of cannabis involvement consist of multiple dimensions of functioning. Prospective studies that assess the multidimensional structure of dysregulation and cannabis involvement are needed in order to disaggregate the dysregulatory antecedents and consequences of cannabis involvement.

Background Little research has examined the development of alcohol expectancies in childhood, a notable omission as expectancies are viable targets for prevention programs. Moreover, limited alcohol expectancies research has been conducted from the perspective of psychobiological models of motivation despite the strong conceptual links between such models and cognitive models of alcohol use. Objective To examine if the associations between individual differences from the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory and alcohol use is mediated by alcohol expectancies in a large community sample of early adolescents using a prospective design. Methods 378 families (1 caregiver; 1 child) were recruited via random digit phone call using a prospective design. Results Our findings suggest that both a strong behavioral approach system and fight-flight or freeze system were associated with high levels of positive outcome expectancies, which subsequently predicted an increase in likelihood of alcohol use. There was also some evidence that drive (an aspect of behavioral approach system) was also positively associated with negative expectancies, which subsequently predicted a low probability of alcohol use. Conclusions and Scientific Significance Individual differences in reinforcement sensitivity may influence the acquisition of positive and negative outcome expectancies, thereby potentially influencing the likelihood of alcohol use in early adolescence. Thus, reinforcement sensitivity theory is a promising theory to account for the link between neural models of addiction and early acquisition of alcohol use in humans.

Family-based preventive interventions should include skills training in alcohol-specific parenting practices with emphasis on reducing parental alcohol use particularly when children are present.