Background Hypovolemic shock reduces oxygen delivery and compromises energy dependent cell volume control. Consequent cell swelling compromises microcirculatory flow, which reducing oxygen exchange further. The importance of this mechanism is highlighted by the effectiveness of cell impermeants in low volume resuscitation (LVR) solutions in acute studies. The objective of this study was to assess impermeants in survival models and compare them to commonly used crystalloid solutions. Methods Adult rats were hemorrhaged to a pressure of 30–35 mm Hg, held there until the plasma lactate reached 10 mM, and given an LVR solution (5–10% blood volume) with saline alone (control), saline with various concentrations of Polyethylene glycol-20k (PEG-20k), hextend or albumin. When lactate again reached 10 mM following LVR, full resuscitation was started with crystalloid and red cells. Rats were either euthanized (acute) or allowed to recover (survival). The LVR time, which is the time from the start of the LVR solution until the start of full resuscitation was measured as was survival and diagnostic labs. In some studies, the capillary oncotic reflection coefficient was determined for PEG-20k to determine its relative impermeant and oncotic effects. Results PEG-20k (10%) significantly increased LVR times relative to saline (8 fold), hextend, and albumin. Lower amounts of PEG-20k (5%) were also effective but less so than 10% doses. PEG-20k maintained normal arterial pressure during the low volume state. Survival of a 180 minute LVR time challenge was 0% in saline controls and 100% in rats given PEG-20k as the LVR solution. Surviving rats had normal labs 24 hours later. PEG-20k had an oncotic reflection coefficient of 0.65, which indicates that the molecule is a hybrid cell impermeant with significant oncotic properties. Conclusions PEG-20k based LVR solutions are highly effective for inducing tolerance to the low volume state and for improving survival.

Objective To determine the role of cell swelling in severe hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation injury. Summary Background Data Circulatory shock induces the loss of energy dependent volume control mechanisms. As water enters ischemic cells, they swell, die, and compress nearby vascular structures, which further aggravates ischemia by reducing local microcirculatory flow and oxygenation. Loading the interstitial space with cell impermeant molecules prevents water movement into the cell by passive biophysical osmotic effects, which prevents swelling injury and no-reflow. Methods Adult rats were hemorrhaged to a pressure of 30–35 mm Hg, held there until the plasma lactate reached 10 mM, and given a low volume resuscitation (LVR) (10–20% blood volume) with saline or various cell impermeants (sorbitol, raffinose, trehalose, gluconate, and Polyethylene glycol-20k (PEG-20k). When lactate again reached 10 mM following LVR, full resuscitation was started with crystalloid and red cells. One hour after full resuscitation, the rats were euthanized. Capillary blood flow was measured by the colored microsphere technique. Results Impermeants prevented ischemia-induced cell swelling in liver tissue and dramatically improved LVR outcomes in shocked rats. Small cell impermeants and PEG-20k in LVR solutions increased tolerance to the low flow state by 2 and 5 fold, respectively, normalized arterial pressure during LVR, and lowered plasma lactate after full resuscitation, relative to saline. This was accompanied by higher capillary blood flow with cell impermeants. Conclusions Ischemia-induced lethal cell swelling during hemorrhagic shock is a key mediator of resuscitation injury, which can be prevented by cell impermeants in low volume resuscitation solutions.

Donation after circulatory death donors (DCD) have the potential to increase the number of heart transplants. The DCD hearts undergo an extended period of warm ischemia, which mandates the use of machine perfusion preservation if they are to be successfully recovered for transplantation. Because the minimum coronary artery flow needed to meet the basal oxygen demand (DCRIT) of a DCD heart during machine perfusion preservation is critical and yet unknown, we studied this in a DCD rat heart model. Adult male rats were anesthetized, intubated, heparinized, and paralyzed with vecuronium. The DCD hearts (n = 9) were recovered 30 minutes after circulatory death whereas non-DCD control hearts (n = 12) were recovered without circulatory death. Hearts were perfused through the aorta with an oxygenated Belzer Modified Machine Perfusion Solution (A3-Bridge to Life Ltd. Columbia, SC) at 15°C or 22°C starting at a flow index of 300 ml/100 g/min and decreasing by 40 ml/100 g/min every 10 minutes. Inflow (aortic) and outflow (inferior vena cava) perfusate samples were collected serially to assess the myocardial oxygen consumption index (MVO2) and O2 extraction ratio. The DCRIT is the minimum coronary flow below which the MVO2 becomes flow dependent. The MVO2, DCRIT, and oxygen extraction ratios were higher in DCD hearts compared with control hearts. The DCRIT for DCD hearts was achieved only at 15°C and was significantly higher (131.6 ± 7 ml/100 g/min) compared with control hearts (107.7 ± 8.4 ml/100 gm/min). The DCD hearts sustain warm ischemic damage and manifest higher metabolic needs during machine perfusion. Establishing adequate coronary perfusion is critical to preserving organ function for potential heart transplantation.