High dietary fat intake leads to insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, and this represents a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been implicated in the disease process, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Here we show that in skeletal muscle of both rodents and humans, a diet high in fat increases the H(2)O(2)-emitting potential of mitochondria, shifts the cellular redox environment to a more oxidized state, and decreases the redox-buffering capacity in the absence of any change in mitochondrial respiratory function. Furthermore, we show that attenuating mitochondrial H(2)O(2) emission, either by treating rats with a mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant or by genetically engineering the overexpression of catalase in mitochondria of muscle in mice, completely preserves insulin sensitivity despite a high-fat diet. These findings place the etiology of insulin resistance in the context of mitochondrial bioenergetics by demonstrating that mitochondrial H(2)O(2) emission serves as both a gauge of energy balance and a regulator of cellular redox environment, linking intracellular metabolic balance to the control of insulin sensitivity.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a key role in promoting mitochondrial cytochrome c release and induction of apoptosis. ROS induce dissociation of cytochrome c from cardiolipin on the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), and cytochrome c may then be released via mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT)-dependent or MPT-independent mechanisms. We have developed peptide antioxidants that target the IMM, and we used them to investigate the role of ROS and MPT in cell death caused by t-butylhydroperoxide (tBHP) and 3-nitropropionic acid (3NP). The structural motif of these peptides centers on alternating aromatic and basic amino acid residues, with dimethyltyrosine providing scavenging properties. These peptide antioxidants are cell-permeable and concentrate 1000-fold in the IMM. They potently reduced intracellular ROS and cell death caused by tBHP in neuronal N 2 A cells (EC 50 in nM range). They also decreased mitochondrial ROS production, inhibited MPT and swelling, and prevented cytochrome c release induced by Ca 2؉ in isolated mitochondria. In addition, they inhibited 3NP-induced MPT in isolated mitochondria and prevented mitochondrial depolarization in cells treated with 3NP. ROS and MPT have been implicated in myocardial stunning associated with reperfusion in ischemic hearts, and these peptide antioxidants potently improved contractile force in an ex vivo heart model. It is noteworthy that peptide analogs without dimethyltyrosine did not inhibit mitochondrial ROS generation or swelling and failed to prevent myocardial stunning. These results clearly demonstrate that overproduction of ROS underlies the cellular toxicity of tBHP and 3NP, and ROS mediate cytochrome c release via MPT. These IMM-targeted antioxidants may be very beneficial in the treatment of aging and diseases associated with oxidative stress.

Opiates such as morphine are the choice analgesic in the treatment of chronic pain. However their long-term use is limited because of the development of tolerance and dependence. Due to its importance in therapy, different strategies have been considered for making opiates such as morphine more effective, while curbing its liability to be abused. One such strategy has been to use a combination of drugs to improve the effectiveness of morphine. In particular, ␦ opioid receptor ligands have been useful in enhancing morphine's potency. The underlying molecular basis for these observations is not understood. We propose the modulation of receptor function by physical association between and ␦ opioid receptors as a potential mechanism. In support of this hypothesis, we show that -␦ interacting complexes exist in live cells and native membranes and that the occupancy of ␦ receptors (by antagonists) is sufficient to enhance opioid receptor binding and signaling activity. Furthermore, ␦ receptor antagonists enhance morphine-mediated intrathecal analgesia. Thus, heterodimeric associations between -␦ opioid receptors can be used as a model for the development of novel combination therapies for the treatment of chronic pain and other pathologies. Opioid receptors belong to the rhodopsin family of G proteincoupled receptors (GPCRs). Like many GPCRs, these receptors were thought to function as single units. This notion has been revised in recent years by a number of studies showing that GPCRs associate with each other to form dimers and͞or oligomers (1-3). Of particular significance are the studies with rhodopsin, a prototypical member of the GPCR family, where infrared-laser atomic-force microscopy of native mouse disk membranes showed the receptors to be arranged in crystalline arrays of dimeric units (4, 5). Also, data from x-ray crystallographic studies with rhodopsin (6, 7) and the N terminus of metabotropic glutamate receptors (8), support the notion that dimerization is an integral feature of these receptors and could play a key role in modulating their function.The three types of opioid receptors (, ␦, and ) have been shown to associate with each other in a homotypic or heterotypic fashion when expressed in heterologous cells (9-11). Furthermore, heterotypic interactions appear to alter the ligand-binding and signaling properties of these receptors (12). However, until now, it was not clear whether these interactions occurred in live cells and in endogenous tissues and whether they were physiologically relevant. In this study, we addressed these questions by using multiple approaches. We used the bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assay to show that and ␦ receptors interact in living cells. In addition, we show that signaling by clinically relevant drugs, such as morphine, fentanyl, and methadone can be enhanced by ␦ receptor ligands. This potentiation of receptor signaling by the ␦ receptor antagonist is seen in membranes from WT mice and not in membranes from ␦ receptor lacking mice (␦ k͞o). Finally, w...

Ischemia causes AKI as a result of ATP depletion, and rapid recovery of ATP on reperfusion is important to minimize tissue damage. ATP recovery is often delayed, however, because ischemia destroys the mitochondrial cristae membranes required for mitochondrial ATP synthesis. The mitochondria-targeted compound SS-31 accelerates ATP recovery after ischemia and reduces AKI, but its mechanism of action remains unclear. Here, we used a polarity-sensitive fluorescent analog of SS-31 to demonstrate that SS-31 binds with high affinity to cardiolipin, an anionic phospholipid expressed on the inner mitochondrial membrane that is required for cristae formation. In addition, the SS-31/cardiolipin complex inhibited cytochrome c peroxidase activity, which catalyzes cardiolipin peroxidation and results in mitochondrial damage during ischemia, by protecting its heme iron. Pretreatment of rats with SS-31 protected cristae membranes during renal ischemia and prevented mitochondrial swelling. Prompt recovery of ATP on reperfusion led to rapid repair of ATP-dependent processes, such as restoration of the actin cytoskeleton and cell polarity. Rapid recovery of ATP also inhibited apoptosis, protected tubular barrier function, and mitigated renal dysfunction. In conclusion, SS-31, which is currently in clinical trials for ischemiareperfusion injury, protects mitochondrial cristae by interacting with cardiolipin on the inner mitochondrial membrane. Ischemic AKI occurs in many clinical settings, including shock, sepsis, and cardiovascular surgery, and it leads to increased mortality in critically ill patients. 1 Ischemia-reperfusion injury is also a critical issue in organ transplantation, where it can result in delayed graft function, and is a major risk factor for chronic allograft nephropathy. 2,3 Tissue injury occurs during ischemia as a result of ATP depletion. The rapid drop in ATP leads to cytoskeletal changes in tubular epithelial cells, because ATP is required for actin polymerization, 4 resulting in breakdown of the brush border, loss of cell-cell contact, disruption of barrier function, and cell detachment. 5 These cytoskeletal changes are reversible if the duration of ischemia is brief and ATP recovery occurs rapidly on reperfusion. Mitochondrial function is pivotal to the recovery of ATP in proximal tubular cells, because they have minimal glycolytic capacity and must rely on oxidative phosphorylation for ATP synthesis. However, ATP recovery is often delayed on reperfusion, because ischemia results in loss of cristae membranes and mitochondrial swelling. 6,7 The recovery of ATP can be further compromised by mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) during

A decline in energy is common in aging, and the restoration of mitochondrial bioenergetics may offer a common approach for the treatment of numerous age‐associated diseases. Cardiolipin is a unique phospholipid that is exclusively expressed on the inner mitochondrial membrane where it plays an important structural role in cristae formation and the organization of the respiratory complexes into supercomplexes for optimal oxidative phosphorylation. The interaction between cardiolipin and cytochrome c determines whether cytochrome c acts as an electron carrier or peroxidase. Cardiolipin peroxidation and depletion have been reported in a variety of pathological conditions associated with energy deficiency, and cardiolipin has been identified as a target for drug development. This review focuses on the discovery and development of the first cardiolipin‐protective compound as a therapeutic agent. SS‐31 is a member of the Szeto‐Schiller (SS) peptides known to selectively target the inner mitochondrial membrane. SS‐31 binds selectively to cardiolipin via electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. By interacting with cardiolipin, SS‐31 prevents cardiolipin from converting cytochrome c into a peroxidase while protecting its electron carrying function. As a result, SS‐31 protects the structure of mitochondrial cristae and promotes oxidative phosphorylation. SS‐31 represents a new class of compounds that can recharge the cellular powerhouse and restore bioenergetics. Extensive animal studies have shown that targeting such a fundamental mechanism can benefit highly complex diseases that share a common pathogenesis of bioenergetics failure. This review summarizes the mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential of SS‐31 and provides an update of its clinical development programme. Linked Articles This article is part of a themed issue on Mitochondrial Pharmacology: Energy, Injury & Beyond. To view the other articles in this issue visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2014.171.issue-8

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive decline of memory and cognitive functions. Despite tremendous progress that has been made in understanding disease progression and therapeutics of AD, we still do not have drugs that are capable of slowing its progression. The purpose of our study was to investigate the effects of the mitochondria-targeted antioxidants (MTAs) MitoQ and SS31, and the anti-aging agent resveratrol on neurons from a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) (Tg2576 line) and on mouse neuroblastoma (N2a) cells incubated with the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide. Using electron and confocal microscopy, gene expression analysis, and biochemical methods, we studied mitochondrial structure and function, and neurite outgrowth in N2a cells treated with MitoQ, SS31, and resveratrol, and then incubated with Aβ. In N2a cells only incubated with the Aβ, we found increased expressions of mitochondrial fission genes and decreased expression of fusion genes, and also decreased expression of peroxiredoxins, endogenous cytoprotective antioxidant enzymes. Electron microscopy of the N2a cells incubated with Aβ revealed a significantly increased number of mitochondria, indicating that Aβ fragments mitochondria. Biochemical analysis revealed that function is defective in mitochondria. Neurite outgrowth was significantly decreased in Aβ-incubated N2a cells, indicating that Aβ affects neurite outgrowth. However, in N2a cells treated with MitoQ, SS31, and resveratrol, and then incubated with Aβ, abnormal expression of peroxiredoxins and mitochondrial structural genes were prevented and mitochondrial function was normal; intact mitochondria were present and neurite outgrowth was significantly increased. In primary neurons from amyloid beta precursor protein (AβPP) transgenic mice that were treated with MitoQ and SS31, neurite outgrowth was significantly increased and cyclophilin D expression was significantly decreased. These findings suggest that the MTAs, MitoQ and SS31 prevent Aβ toxicity in mitochondria, which would warrant the study of MitoQ and SS31 as potential drugs to treat patients with AD.

BACKGROUND Mechanical ventilation (MV) is a life-saving intervention used to provide adequate pulmonary ventilation in patients suffering from respiratory failure. However, prolonged MV is associated with significant diaphragmatic weakness resulting from both myofiber atrophy and contractile dysfunction. Although several signaling pathways contribute to diaphragm weakness during MV, it is established that oxidative stress is required for diaphragmatic weakness to occur. Therefore, identifying the site(s) of MV-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the diaphragm is important. OBJECTIVE These experiments tested the hypothesis that elevated mitochondrial ROS emission is required for MV-induced oxidative stress, atrophy, and contractile dysfunction in the diaphragm. DESIGN Cause and effect was determined by preventing MV-induced mitochondrial ROS emission in the diaphragm of rats using a novel mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant (SS-31). MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Compared to mechanically ventilated animals treated with saline, animals treated with SS-31 were protected against MV-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and protease activation in the diaphragm. Importantly, treatment of animals with the mitochondrial antioxidant also protected the diaphragm against MV-induced myofiber atrophy and contractile dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS These results reveal that prevention of MV-induced increases in diaphragmatic mitochondrial ROS emission protects the diaphragm MV-induced diaphragmatic weakness. This important new finding indicates that mitochondria are a primary source of ROS production in the diaphragm during prolonged MV. These results could lead to the development of a therapeutic intervention to impede MV-induced diaphragmatic weakness.

The free radical theory of aging proposes that reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced accumulation of damage to cellular macromolecules is a primary driving force of aging and a major determinant of lifespan. Although this theory is one of the most popular explanations for the cause of aging, several experimental rodent models of antioxidant manipulation have failed to affect lifespan. Moreover, antioxidant supplementation clinical trials have been largely disappointing. The mitochondrial theory of aging specifies more particularly that mitochondria are both the primary sources of ROS and the primary targets of ROS damage. In addition to effects on lifespan and aging, mitochondrial ROS have been shown to play a central role in healthspan of many vital organ systems. In this article we review the evidence supporting the role of mitochondrial oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and dysfunction in aging and healthspan, including cardiac aging, age-dependent cardiovascular diseases, skeletal muscle aging, neurodegenerative diseases, insulin resistance and diabetes as well as age-related cancers. The crosstalk of mitochondrial ROS, redox, and other cellular signaling is briefly presented. Potential therapeutic strategies to improve mitochondrial function in aging and healthspan are reviewed, with a focus on mitochondrial protective drugs, such as the mitochondrial antioxidants MitoQ, SkQ1, and the mitochondrial protective peptide SS-31.