Abstract:The present paper examines the changing climatic scenarios and associated effects on livestock farming (pastoralism) in the arid and semi arid lands (ASAL) of Kenya, which cover over 80% of the country. The study was carried out in the semi arid Mukogodo Division of Laikipia District in Kenya. This division received a mean annual rainfall of approximately 507.8 mm and the main source of livelihood was pastoralism. Questionnaire, structured interview, observation and literature review were the main methods of data collection. Rainfall was used in delineating changes in climate. Standardized precipitation index (SPI) and Markov process were used in analyzing drought severity and persistence, respectively. Approximately 38% of all droughts between 1975 and 2005 were prolonged and extremely severe, with cumulative severity indices ranging between −2.54 and −6.49. The probability that normal climatic conditions persisted for two or more consecutive years in Mukogodo Division remained constant at approximately 52%. However, the probability of wet years persisting for two or more years showed a declining trend, while persistence of dry years increased with duration. A drying climatic trend was established. This drying trend in the area led to increased land degradation and encroachment of invasive nonpalatable bushes. The net effect on pastoralism was large‐scale livestock loss through starvation, disease and cattle rustling. Proper drought monitoring and accurate forecasts, community participation in all government interventions, infrastructural development in the ASAL and allocation of adequate resources for livestock development are some of the measures necessary for mitigating the dwindling pastoral economy in Kenya and other parts of the world.

Cities in Africa) argues that important contributions to debates on urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa, the nature of urban poverty, and the relationship between governance, poverty and the spatial characteristics of cities and towns in the region can be made through a focus on urban food systems and the dynamics of urban food poverty. There is a knowledge gap regarding secondary cities, their characteristics and governance, and yet these are important sites of urbanization in Africa.

Climate change (CC) impedes smallholder dairy industry in Kenya. Consequently, farmers' adaptation to CC effects would greatly determine their resilience, profitability, and sustainable contribution to the economy. Socio-demography among other factors, determine smallholder farmers' adaptive strategies to CC effects. This study sought to understand how smallholder dairy farmers in South Western Kenya adapt to climate changes and determine the relationship between famers' adaptive strategies and their socio-demographics of sex, age, marital status, highest educational level, household size, and experience in dairying. Concurrent Fixed Mixed Methods were used to collect primary and secondary data. Reports and papers were reviewed for temperature and precipitation data, dairy population, production trends, and farmers' socio-demographics. A survey questionnaire was administered to 367 smallholder dairy household heads with 10 years' experience obtained through multi-stage sampling of respondents from 4 sub counties of Migori county. The data collected included the respondents' socio-demographics, climate changes and adaptability to CC effects. Key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with heads of government departments of Livestock Production, Cooperative Development, Meteorology, Environment and Agriculture Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP) in Migori County. Others included the leadership of Rongo Dairy Farmers' Cooperative Society, Lichota Livestock Development Farm, and a Research Officer for Livestock Production Systems with Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO). Focus group discussions (FGDs), on the other hand, were conducted with old men and women (aged 60 years and above), and farmer How to cite this paper: Odhiambo, C.O., Wasike, C.B. and Ogindo, H.O. (2019) Effect of Socio-Demographic Characteristics on Kenyan Smallholder Dairy Farmers' Adaptive Strategies to Climate Change Effects.Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 9, 583-599. https://doi.These were obtained purposively based on dairying experience.Descriptive statistics (percentages) were used to describe climate change effect on smallholder dairying and farmers' adaptation. Percentages, minimum and maximum values, means, range, and standard deviations were used to describe respondents' socio-demographics. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine the effect of farmers' socio-demographics on their adaptive strategies to CC effects. Results indicated that individually, male farmers were more likely to adopt mixed crop and livestock farming (Odds = 3.97; p = 0.02) and experience an increasing trend in income earning from milk sales (Odds = 0.63; p = 0.04). Individually, older farmers were significantly more likely to establish own fodder (Odds = 0.96; p = 0.03), keep non-Friesians and their crosses (Odds = 0.97; p = 0.02), and experience increasing trends in income earned from milk sales (odds = 1.02; p = 0.02). Individually, household size significantly influenced establishment of own fodder (Odds =...

Despite great potential, Kenyan smallholder dairying faces diminishing land sizes, high input costs, poor extension contacts, non-responsive price policies, and new pests and diseases. Climate change will worsen the situation. This study sought to assess smallholder dairy farmers' climate change adaptation level in Southwestern Kenya. Adopting Concurrent Fixed Mixed Methods, primary and secondary data was collected. Reports and papers were reviewed for temperature and precipitation data, dairy population, production trends, and farmers' socio-demographics. A survey questionnaire for climate changes and farmers' adaptiveness was administered to 367 smallholder dairy household heads with 10 years' experience, obtained by multi-stage sampling from 4 sub-counties. Key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with farmer groups, heads of research, government departments and livestock farms; and the old that were obtained purposively based on dairying experience. Percentages were used for climate change effect on smallholder dairying and farmers' adaptation. Principal component analysis was used for factors with great influence on respondents' climate change adaptiveness; while one proportion Z-score test was used for significant differences between adapters and non-adapters (p < 0.05). Flexible and systematic Framework Approach was used for qualitative data analysis by cases and 5 themes. Findings indicated that despite Migori County's great dairying potential, climate changes have partly hindered full exploitation. Temperatures and rainfall increased slightly in 30 years; with feeds and water diminishing, and resistant diseases and parasites emerging. Upon ranking, pasture

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