Nyamplung seed (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) oil is a prospective non-edible vegetable oil as biodiesel feedstock. However, it cannot be directly used in the alkaline catalysed transesterification reaction since it contains high free fatty acid (FFA) of 19.17%. The FFA content above 2% will cause saponification reaction, reducing the biodiesel yield. In this work, FFA removal was performed using sulfuric acid catalysed esterification to meet the maximum FFA amount of 2%. Experimental work and response surface methodology (RSM) analysis were conducted. The reaction was conducted at the fixed molar ratio of nyamplung seed oil and methanol of 1:30 and the reaction times of 120 minutes. The catalyst concentration and the reaction temperature were varied. The highest reaction conversion was 78.18%, and the FFA concentration was decreased to 4.01% at the temperature of 60℃ and reaction time of 120 minutes. The polynomial model analysis on RSM demonstrated that the quadratic model was the most suitable FFA conversion optimisation. The RSM analysis exhibited the optimum FFA conversion of 78.27% and the FFA content of 4%, attained at the reaction temperature, catalyst concentration, and reaction time of 59.09℃, 1.98% g/g nyamplung seed oil, and 119.95 minutes, respectively. Extrapolation using RSM predicted that the targeted FFA content of 2% could be obtained at the temperature, catalyst concentration, and reaction time of 58.97℃, 3%, and 194.9 minutes, respectively, with a fixed molar ratio of oil to methanol of 1:30. The results disclosed that RSM is an appropriate statistical method for optimising the process variable in the esterification reaction to obtain the targeted value of FFA.
Biodiesel or Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) is a biofuel formed from transesterification of vegetable oil and fat. In this study, the source of vegetable oil is Rubber seed oil (RSO). The oil was extracted from rubber seed by solvent extraction, using n-hexane and methanol. The oil produced from both solvents’ extraction were used as feedstock. Biodiesel production from RSO was performed with methanol as acyl acceptor. using immobilized Pseudomonas cepacia lipase as catalyst. Three different parameters were studied, they are reaction time, lipase inhibition, and stepwise addition of methanol/oil molar ratio. The enzymatic transesterification with ultrasonic assisted process was utilized, as it enhances the miscibility between oil and methanol, which lead to reducing the reaction time and significantly increased the yield of biodiesel. The results indicated a significant biodiesel is produced with the highest yield of 76.55%, at 45 °C, with the lipase amount of 5 % (w/w), methanol to oil molar ratio of 3:1 within 6 hours. It is found that despite high content of free fatty acid of rubber seed oil, it has a potential as alternative feedstock for FAME production.
Biodiesel is increasingly being considered as an alternative to the fossil fuel as it is renewable, nontoxic, biodegradable, and feasible for mass production. Biodiesel can be produced from various types of vegetable oils. Calophyllum inophyllum seed oil (CSO) is among the prospective nonedible vegetable oils considered as a raw material for biodiesel synthesis. The most common process of the biodiesel manufacturing is the transesterification of vegetable oils which results in glycerol as a by-product. Thus, product purification is necessary. In this work, an alternative route to biodiesel synthesis through interesterification reaction of vegetable oil and ethyl acetate was conducted. By replacing alcohol with ethyl acetate, triacetin was produced as a side product rather than glycerol. Triacetin can be used as a fuel additive to increase the octane number of the fuel. Therefore, triacetin separation from biodiesel products is needless. The interesterification reaction is catalyzed by an alkaline catalyst or by a lipase enzyme. In this study, biodiesel synthesis was carried out using a lipase enzyme since it is a green and sustainable catalyst. The interesterification reaction of CSO with ethyl acetate in the presence of a lipase catalyst was conducted using the molar ratio of CSO and ethyl acetate of 1:3. The reaction time, lipase catalyst concentration, and reaction temperature were varied at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 h, 10%,15%, 20%, and 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C, respectively. The experimental results were also analyzed using response surface methodology (RSM) with the Box–Behnken design (BBD) model on Design Expert software. Data processing using RSM revealed that the highest conversion within the studied parameter range was 41.46%, obtained at a temperature reaction of 44.43 °C, a reaction time of 5 h, and a lipase catalyst concentration of 20%.
This research aims to formulate a disinfectant from citrus waste-infused used cooking oil through the conventional process and evaluate its effectiveness in microbial elimination. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) were utilized to characterize citrus waste-infused used cooking oil. Two prominent bands belonging to the alkane (2921.93–2922.26 cm–1) and ester (1743.60–1743.73 cm–1) were observed on all FTIR spectra. Aside from that, through GC-MS analysis, dried orange-infused used cooking oil was discovered to have the highest percentage content of major antimicrobial compounds such as esters, oxygenated monoterpenoids, triterpenes, and alkaloids with 1.92% of the total amount of compounds found in the sample. However, the agar plate method revealed that the fresh lemon waste-infused used cooking oil disinfectant formulation was the most effective at inhibiting bacterial growth as the colony-forming detected on the agar plates dropped from 20 colonies to nearly zero and from 49 to 3 colonies for the plate swabbed with microbes from the table and doorknob surfaces, respectively. Based on the findings, the citrus waste and used cooking oil were viewed to have the potential as one of the possible ingredients in creating safer disinfectants in the future.
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