Discovery learning approaches to education have recently come under scrutiny (Tobias & Duffy, 2009) with many studies indicating limitations to discovery learning practices. Therefore, two meta-analyses were conducted using a sample of 164 studies: The first examined the effects of unassisted discovery learning versus explicit instruction and the second examined the effects of enhanced and/or assisted discovery versus other types of instruction (e.g., explicit, unassisted discovery, etc.). Random effects analyses of 580 comparisons revealed that outcomes were favorable for explicit instruction when compared to unassisted discovery under most conditions, d = -.38 (95% CI = -.44/-.31). In contrast, analyses of 360 comparisons revealed that outcomes were favorable for enhanced discovery when compared to other forms of instruction, d = .30 (95% CI = .23/.36). The findings suggest that unassisted discovery does not benefit learners, whereas feedback, worked examples, scaffolding, and elicited explanations do. …the average student will be unable to recall most of the factual content of a typical lecture within fifteen minutes after the end of class. In contrast, interests, values, and cognitive skills are all likely to last longer, as are concepts and knowledge that students have acquired not by passively reading or listening to lectures but through their own mental efforts (Bok, 2006, pp. 48-49).Over the past several decades, conventional explicit instruction has been increasingly supplanted by approaches more closely aligned with constructivist concepts of exploration, discovery, and invention (i.e., discovery learning), at least in part because of an appreciation of which learning outcomes are most valuable (Bok, 2006). Allowing learners to interact with materials, manipulate variables, explore phenomena, and attempt to apply principles affords them with opportunities to notice patterns, discover underlying causalities, and learn in ways that are seemingly more robust. Such self-guided learning approaches, like Piaget (1952;1965;1980) proposed, posit the child/learner at the center of the learning process as they attempt to make sense of the world. From an ecological perspective, people learn many complex skills without formal instruction through participation in daily activities and observation of others (Rogoff, 1990). Indeed, in cultures without institutionalized formal education, complex skills and modes of thought are learned in the absence of explicit, verbal teaching. Nonetheless, debate remains concerning the limitations of discovery learning (e.g., Bruner, 1961;Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006;Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004;Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007; Tobias & Duffy, 2009). Pedagogical and cognitive concerns have led to some disagreement as to what constitutes effective discovery learning methods and how and when such methods should be applied. Two recent review papers (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Mayer, 2004) have outlined some of the problems associated with various discover...

Four quantitative meta-analyses examined whether teachers' expectations, referrals, positive and neutral speech, and negative speech differed toward ethnic minority students (i.e., African American, Asian American, and Latino/a) as compared with European American students. Teachers were found to hold the highest expectations for Asian American students (d = -.17). In addition, teachers held more positive expectations for European American students than for Latino/a (d =.46) or African American (d =.25) students. Teachers made more positive referrals and fewer negative referrals for European American students than for Latino/a and African American students (d =.31). Although teachers directed more positive and neutral speech (e.g., questions and encouragement) toward European American students than toward Latino/a and African American students (d =.21), they directed an equal amount of negative speech (e.g., criticism) to all students (d =.02). In general, teachers' favoring of European American students compared with African American and Latino/a students was associated with small but statistically significant effects. The meta-analyses suggest that teachers' expectations and speech vary with students' ethnic backgrounds. PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved

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This study investigated the family as a context for the gender typing of science achievement. Adolescents (N ϭ 52) from 2 age levels (mean ages ϭ 11 and 13 years) participated with their mothers and fathers on separate occasions; families were from predominantly middle-income European American backgrounds. Questionnaires measured the parents' and the child's attitudes. Each parent also engaged his or her child in 4 structured teaching activities (including science and nonscience tasks). There were no child gender or grade-level differences in children's science-related grades, self-efficacy, or interest. However, parents were more likely to believe that science was less interesting and more difficult for daughters than sons. In addition, parents' beliefs significantly predicted children's interest and self-efficacy in science. When parents' teaching language was examined, fathers tended to use more cognitively demanding speech with sons than with daughters during one of the science tasks.

Young children's everyday scientific thinking often occurs in the context of parent-child interactions. In a study of naturally occurring family conversation, parents were three times more likely to explain science to boys than to girls while using interactive science exhibits in a museum. This difference in explanation occurred despite the fact that parents were equally likely to talk to their male and female children about how to use the exhibits and about the evidence generated by the exhibits. The findings suggest that parents engaged in informal science activities with their children may be unintentionally contributing to a gender gap in children's scientific literacy well before children encounter formal science instruction in grade school.

Meta-analyses were conducted of 43 articles (with 48 different samples) investigating the relationship between parents' gender schemas and their offspring's gender-related cognitions. The parents' offspring ranged in age from infancy to early adulthood. Offspring measures included gender self-concept, gender attitudes toward others, gender-related interests, and occupational attitudes. Overall, a small but meaningful effect size (r = .16) indicated a significant and positive correlation between parent gender schemas and offspring measures. Specifically, parents with more traditional gender schemas were more likely than parents with more nontraditional schemas to have offspring with gender-typed cognitions about themselves or others. In addition, the magnitudes of observed effect sizes were influenced by particular moderator variables, including type of parent gender schema (gender self-concept vs. gender attitudes toward others), type of offspring gender-related cognitions, parent gender, offspring gender, offspring age, and publication characteristics. The results are cautiously interpreted as suggesting a possible influence of parents on the development of their children's gender-related thinking.

Decades of research indicate that peer interaction among children and adolescents can be beneficial for learning and development. Less, however, is known about which features of interaction may be effective in promoting learning. This meta-analysis examined results from 62 articles with 71 studies into peer interaction, involving a total of 7,105 participants aged 4 to 18 years. The meta-analysis found that peer interaction was effective in promoting learning in comparison with other types of learning conditions. Moderator analyses suggested that learning from interaction with peers was as effective as learning from adults one-on-one, and more effective than children learning individually. Peer interaction is also more effective when children are specifically instructed to reach consensus. Findings point to theoretical considerations for developmental work and practical implications for the effective use of peer interaction techniques in the classroom. Peer Interaction Meta-Analysis