The aim of this study was to identify normative developmental trajectories of parent-reported problems assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; T. M. Achenbach, 1991) in a representative sample of 2,076 children aged 4 to 18 years from the general population. The trajectories were determined by multilevel growth curve analyses on the CBCL syndromes in a Longitudinal multiple birth-cohort sample that was assessed 5 times with 2-year intervals. Most syndromes showed a linear increase or decrease with age or a curvilinear trajectory, except for thought problems. Trajectories for most syndromes differed for boys versus girls, except those for withdrawn, social problems, and thought problems. These normative developmental trajectories provide information against which developmental deviance in childhood and adolescence can be detected.

This article describes the average and group-based developmental trajectories of aggression, opposition, property violations, and status violations using parent reports of externalizing behaviors on a longitudinal multiple birth cohort study of 2,076 children aged 4 to 18 years. Trajectories were estimated from multilevel growth curve analyses and semiparametric mixture models. Overall, males showed higher levels of externalizing behavior than did females. Aggression, opposition, and property violations decreased on average, whereas status violations increased over time. Group-based trajectories followed the shape of the average curves at different levels and were similar for males and females. The trajectories found in this study provide a basis against which deviations from the expected developmental course can be identified and classified as deviant or nondeviant.

This study examines the prevalence, stability, and development of physical aggression, as reported by mothers and fathers, in a sample of children initially recruited at 12, 24, and 36 months (N=2,253) and in a subsample followed up 1 year later (n=271) in a cross-sequential design. Physical aggression occurred in 12-month-olds, but significantly more often in 24- and 36-month-olds. The rates of physically aggressive behaviors increased in the 2nd year of life, and declined from the 3rd birthday onward. Stabilities were moderate for 12-month-olds and high for 24- and 36-month-olds. At the ages of 24 and 36 months, boys were more aggressive than girls. The results confirm and extend R.E. Tremblay's (2004) hypothesis about the early development of physical aggression.

Elevated scale scores reflected differences between children with and without ID over a broad range of items, and not solely on items more likely to be related to developmental delay. Therefore, problem areas covered by the items in these scales deserve special attention in the mental health care of children with ID.

An inverse relation between cortisol (re)activity and externalizing behavior has been hypothesized, but research findings seem equivocal. We tested this hypo(re)activity hypothesis in two meta-analyses, one for basal cortisol (k ¼ 72 studies, N ¼ 5,480) and one for cortisol reactivity to a stressor (k ¼ 29 studies, N ¼ 2,601). No association was found between cortisol reactivity and externalizing behaviors (r ¼ À.04, 95% CI ¼ À.11, .02). However, the relation between basal cortisol and externalizing behavior was significant but small (r ¼ À.05, 95% CI ¼ À.10, À.002). The age of the children significantly moderated this relation: Externalizing behavior was associated with higher basal cortisol (hyperactivity) in preschoolers (r ¼.09, 95% CI ¼ .002, .17), and with lower basal cortisol (hypoactivity) in elementary school-aged children (r ¼ À.14, 95% CI ¼ À.19, À.08). There was no significant relation between cortisol and externalizing behavior in adolescents. ß

The authors explored the utility of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) in assessing adolescents' emotion regulation. Adolescents (11-17 years; N = 870) completed the DERS and measures of externalizing and internalizing problems. Confirmatory factor analysis suggested a similar factor structure in the adolescent sample of the authors as demonstrated previously among adults. Furthermore, results indicated no gender bias in ratings of DERS factors on three scales (as evidenced by strong factorial gender invariance) and limited gender bias on the other three scales (as evidenced by metric invariance). Female adolescents scored higher on four of six DERS factors than male adolescents. DERS factors were meaningfully related to adolescents' externalizing and internalizing problems. Results suggest that scores on the DERS show promising internal consistency and validity in a community sample of adolescents.

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There is increasing interest in measuring quality of life (QL) in children and adolescents, but this interest has developed without careful attention given numerous important issues. Consequently, there is much diversity and confusion in this measurement area. We discuss at a conceptual level herein how to construe and define QL, approach its measurement, and the implications of for whom this is done. Methodological issues pertaining to validation, proxy report, and child development are also discussed. Guidelines for selecting QL measures are provided and a set of generic QL measures is recommended for further consideration. Finally, applications of the QL concept in the policy, service and care, and science areas are delineated.