Canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD) is an acute, highly contagious disease complex caused by a variety of infectious agents. At present, the role of viral and bacterial components as primary or secondary pathogens in CIRD is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV), canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2), canine influenza virus (CIV), canine respiratory coronavirus (CRCoV), canine herpes virus-1 (CHV-1), canine distemper virus (CDV) and Bordetella bronchiseptica in dogs with CIRD and to compare the data with findings in healthy dogs. Sixty-one dogs with CIRD and 90 clinically healthy dogs from Southern Germany were prospectively enrolled in this study. Nasal and pharyngeal swabs were collected from all dogs and were analysed for CPIV, CAV-2, CIV, CRCoV, CHV-1, CDV, and B. bronchiseptica by real-time PCR. In dogs with acute respiratory signs, 37.7% tested positive for CPIV, 9.8% for CRCoV and 78.7% for B. bronchiseptica. Co-infections with more than one agent were detected in 47.9% of B. bronchiseptica-positive, 82.6% of CPIV-positive, and 100% of CRCoV-positive dogs. In clinically healthy dogs, 1.1% tested positive for CAV-2, 7.8% for CPIV and 45.6% for B. bronchiseptica. CPIV and B. bronchiseptica were detected significantly more often in dogs with CIRD than in clinically healthy dogs (P < 0.001 for each pathogen) and were the most common infectious agents in dogs with CIRD in Southern Germany. Mixed infections with several pathogens were common. In conclusion, clinically healthy dogs can carry respiratory pathogens and could act as sources of infection for susceptible dogs.

The aim of this prospective study was to evaluate the prevalence of feline haemotropic mycoplasmas in Germany, to determine probable risk factors for these infections and to compare the diagnostic value of microscopic examination of blood smears to polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For the prevalence study, convenience samples (Ethylene diamine-tetraacetic acid (EDTA) blood) from 262 (64.5% male and 35.5% female) cats were included. A PCR for the detection of Mycoplasma haemofelis (MHF) and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMH) as well as a feline leukaemia virus (FeLV)/feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) enzyme-linked immunoassay was performed. Blood smears from 224 cats were examined and the sensitivity and specificity of the microscopic diagnosis were determined. The prevalence of CMH, MHF, and CMH/MHF co-infection was 22.5%, 4.5%, and 0.8%, respectively. CMH was significantly associated with male gender (P=0.047), older age (P=0.0015) and both FeLV (P=0.002) and FIV infections (P<0.0001). However, there was no association between the presence of anaemia and CMH/MHF infection. The respective sensitivity and specificity of the microscopic diagnosis were 10.3% and 87.1% for a CMH infection and 0.0% and 98.0% for MHF infection.

BackgroundIndividual enteropathogen infections in healthy and clinically ill cats are well described, but prevalence and patterns of enteropathogen co-infection have only been reported on a limited basis. We studied enteropathogen co-infection in diarrhoeic UK cats using results of a real time PCR assay for 8 enteropathogenic species; feline coronavirus (Co), feline panleukopenia virus (Pa), Clostridium perfringens (Cl), Salmonella enterica (Sa), Giardia spp. (Gi), Tritrichomonas foetus (Tr), Cryptosporidium spp. (Cr), and Toxoplasma gondii (To). Age, gender, breed and history were recorded. PCR panels from 1088 diarrhoeic cats were available for analysis.ResultsOverall enteropathogen prevalence was 56.9% (Co), 22.1% (Pa), 56.6% (Cl), 0.8% (Sa), 20.6% (Gi), 18.8% (Tr), 24.4% (Cr) and 1.0% (To). Prevalence of Co, Gi and Tr was higher in pedigree cats compared to non-pedigree cats (DSH) and prevalence decreased with increasing age for Co, Pa, Gi, Cr and Tr. Co-infection was common: ≥2 enteropathogens were detected in 62.5% of cats, and 13.3% of cats had ≥4 enteropathogens. Mean ( truex¯) enteropathogen co-infection 2.01 (±1.3 SD), was significantly higher in pedigree cats ( truex¯ =2.51) compared to DSH ( truex¯ =1.68) and decreased with age ( truex¯ =2.64 <6 months, truex¯ =1.68 for >1 yr). More cats were negative for all 8 enteropathogens tested (12.7%) than expected. When exact combinations of co-infection were examined, Tr tended to be found in combinations with Co, Cl, and Gi.ConclusionsMultiple infections should be considered the most likely result of faecal testing in cats, and case management needs to take this into account. In contrast, the relatively high percentage of cats negative for all 8 enteropathogens tested could indicate an innate resistance to infection. Alternatively it could indicate a lack of exposure to these 8 enteropathogens or the presence of other enteropathogens not assessed by this assay.

The nicotianamine-deficient mutant chloronerva resembles phenotypically an Fe-deficient plant despite the high accumulation of Fe in the leaves, whereas it suffers from Cu deficiency in the shoot. Two-dimensional electrophoretic separation of proteins from root tips and leaves of wild-type Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv Bonner Beste and the mutant grown with and without Fe showed a number of consistent differences. In root tips of the Fe-deficient wild type and the Fe-sufficient as well as the Fe-deficient mutant, the expression of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, and ascorbate peroxidase was increased. In leaves of the Fe-sufficient and -deficient mutant, Cu-containing chloroplastic and cytosolic superoxide dismutase (Cu-Zn) and plastocyanin (Cu) were nearly absent. This low plastocyanin content could be restored by supplying Cu via the xylem, but the superoxide dismutase levels could not be increased by this treatment. The differences in the protein patterns between wild type and mutant indicate that the apparent Fe deficiency of mutant plants led to an increase in enzymes involved in anaerobic metabolism as well as enzymes involved in stress defense. The biosynthesis of plastocyanin was diminished in mutant leaves, but it was differentially induced by increased Cu content.

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