Purpose Cross-sectional studies found high levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, and loneliness during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Reported increases were lower in longitudinal population-based findings. Studies including positive outcomes are rare. This study analyzed changes in mental health symptoms, loneliness, and satisfaction. Methods Respondents of the German Socio-Economic Panel (N = 6038) were surveyed pre-pandemic (2017/2019) and during the first (June 2020) and second wave (January and February 2021) of the pandemic. Self-report screeners assessed depression and anxiety symptoms, loneliness, life and health satisfaction. Difference scores were analysed using ANCOVAs focusing on time, gender, age groups. Results Depression and anxiety symptoms and health satisfaction increased from pre-pandemic to the first wave, but declined in the second pandemic wave. Loneliness increased and life satisfaction decreased during the first and the second wave of the pandemic. Young adults and women reported more distress and loneliness, even after controlling for pre-pandemic scores, education, and income. All effects remained stable when controlling for self-reported previous diagnosis of depression or region of residence. Conclusion Increases and decreases in mental health symptoms and health satisfaction showed little variation. Of concern are the strong increases of loneliness and decreased life satisfaction being important targets for interventions. Main risk factors are young age and female gender.

Objective Personality has long been assumed to be a cause of religiosity, not a consequence. Yet, recent research suggests that religiosity may well cause personality change. Consequently, longitudinal research is required that examines the bi‐directionality between personality and religiosity. The required research must also attend to cultural religiosity—a critical moderator in previous cross‐sectional research. Method We conducted four‐wave, cross‐lagged panel models assessing the bi‐directional effects between religiosity (measured as religious attendance) and the Big Five personality traits over 12 years in 14 samples (Ntotal = 44,485). Each sample used population‐representative data from a different German federal state—states that vary widely in religiosity. Results The findings were the following: (1) Agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness were associated with changes in religiosity, with the latter two effects being culture‐contingent. (2) Religiosity was associated with changes in agreeableness and openness, with the latter effect being culture‐contingent. (3) The cross‐lagged effects of personality on religiosity were overall stronger than the reverse effects. Conclusions The directionality between the Big Five and religiosity seems to go both ways and culture matters for those effects. We discuss the power of religiosity to alter personality and the role of culture for this effect and for personality change more generally.

Differences in mortality by socio-economic position (SEP) are well established, but there is uncertainty as to which dimension of SEP is most important in what context. This study compares the relationship between three SEP dimensions and mortality in Finland, during the periods 1990–97 and 2000–07, and to existing results for Sweden. We use an 11% random sample from the Finnish population with information on education, occupational class, individual income and mortality (age groups 35–59 and 60–84) (n = 810,902; 274,316 deaths). Cox proportional hazard models produce hazard ratios (HR) for categories of SEP variables in bivariate and multivariate models. Multivariate HRs are smaller than bivariate HRs, but all dimensions have a net effect on mortality. Overall, income shows the steepest mortality gradient: HR = 2.49 among men in the lowest income quintile aged 35–59 in the 1990s. The importance of the various SEP dimensions is modified by gender and age group, reflecting the significance of gendered life course differences in analyses of health inequality. Except for the declining disadvantage of poor men aged 35–59, inequalities are very stable over time and similar between Finland and Sweden. In such studies, the use of only one SEP indicator functions well as a broad marker of SEP. However, only analyses of multiple dimensions allow for comprehensive measurements of SEP, take into account the fact that some SEP dimensions are mediated by others, and provide insights into the social mechanisms underlying the stable structure of inequalities in mortality.<br /><br />Key messages<br /><ul><li>We study associations between mortality and education, occupational class and income in Finland.</li><br /><li>Income produces higher mortality differentials than the other SEP dimensions, in bi- and multivariate models.</li><br /><li>Mortality gradients remain largely unchanged between the 1990s and the 2000s and are similar in Finland and Sweden.</li></ul>