Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a negatively charged lipid type commonly found in eukaryotic membranes, where it interacts with proteins via nonspecific electrostatic interactions as well as via specific binding. Moreover, in the presence of calcium ions, PS lipids can induce membrane fusion and phase separation. Molecular details of these phenomena remain poorly understood, partly because accurate models to interpret the experimental data have not been available. Here we gather a set of previously published experimental NMR data of C-H bond order parameter magnitudes, |S CH |, for pure PS and mixed PS:PC (phosphatidylcholine) lipid bilayers, and augment this data set by measuring the signs of S CH in the PS headgroup using S-DROSS solid-state NMR spectroscopy. The augmented data set is then used to assess the accuracy of the PS headgroup structures in, and the cation binding to, PS-containing membranes in the most commonly used classical molecular dynamics (MD) force fields including CHARMM36, Lipid17, MacRog, Slipids, GROMOS-CKP, Berger, and variants. We show large discrepancies between different force fields, and that none of them reproduces the NMR data within experimental accuracy. However, the best MD models can detect the most essential differences between PC and PS headgroup structures. The cation binding affinity is, in line with our previous results for PC lipids, not captured correctly by any of the PS force fields. Moreover, the simulated response of PS headgroup to bound ions can differ from experiments even qualitatively. The collected experimental dataset and simulation results will pave the way for development of lipid force fields that correctly describe the biologically relevant negatively charged membranes and their interactions with ions. This work is part of the NMRlipids open collaboration project (nmrlipids.blogspot.fi).

In this work, we investigate the effect of salt and water on plasticization and thermal properties of hydrated poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDAC) and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) assemblies via molecular dynamics simulations and modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC). Commonly, both water and salt are considered to be plasticizers of hydrated polyelectrolyte assemblies. However, the simulation results presented here show that while water has a plasticizing effect, salt can also have an opposite effect on the PE assemblies. On one hand, the presence of salt ions provides additional free volume for chain motion and weakens PDAC-PSS ion pairing due to electrostatic screening, which contributes toward plasticization of the complex. On the other hand, salt ions bind water in their hydration shells, which decreases water mobility and reduces the plasticization by hydration. Our MDSC results connect the findings to macroscopic PE plasticization and the glass-transition-like thermal transition T under controlled PE hydration and salt content. This work identifies and characterizes the dual nature of salt both as plasticizer and hardener of PE assemblies and maps the interconnection of the influence of salt with the degree of hydration in the system. Our findings provide insight into the existing literature data, bear fundamental significance in understanding of hydrated polyelectrolyte assemblies, and suggest a direct means to tailor the mechanical characteristics of PE assemblies via interplay of water and salt.

Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) form by mixing polycation and polyanion solutions together, and have been explored for a variety of applications. One challenge for PEC processing and application is that under certain conditions the as-formed PECs aggregate and precipitate out of suspension over the course of minutes to days. This aggregation is governed by several factors such as electrostatic repulsion, van der Waals attractions, and hydrophobic interactions. In this work, we explore the boundary between colloidally stable and unstable complexes as it is influenced by polycation/polyanion mixing ratio and ionic strength. The polymers examined are poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDAC) and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS). Physical properties such as turbidity, hydrodynamic size, and zeta potential are investigated upon complex formation. We also perform detailed molecular dynamics simulations to examine the structure and effective charge distribution of the PECs at varying mixing ratios and salt concentrations to support the experimental findings. The results suggest that the colloidally stable/unstable boundary possibly marks the screening effects from added salt, resulting in weakly charged complexes that aggregate. At higher salt concentrations, the complexes initially form and then gradually dissolve into solution.

We report the first atomic scale studies of polyelectrolyte decomplexation. The complex between DNA and polylysine is shown to destabilize and spontaneously open in a gradual, reversible zipper-like mechanism driven by an increase in solution salt concentration. Divalent CaCl2 is significantly more effective than monovalent NaCl in destabilizing the complex due to charge correlations and water binding capability. The dissociation occurs accompanied by charge reversal in which charge correlations and ion binding chemistry play a key role. Our results are in agreement with experimental work on complex dissociation but in addition show the underlying microstructural correlations driving the behavior. Comparison of our full atomic level detail and dynamics results with theoretical works describing the PEs as charged, rigid rods reveals that although charge correlation involved theories provide qualitatively similar responses, considering also specific molecular chemistry and molecular level water contributions provides a more complete understanding of PE complex stability and dynamics. The findings may facilitate controlled release in gene delivery and more in general tuning of PE membrane permeability and mechanical characteristics through ionic strength.

Molecular dynamics is used to study how polycation chemistry and charge per length affect the salt tolerance of DNA–polycation complexes.